Cellular Biology |
From the CIHR Multidisciplinary Research Group on Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, Canada.
Correspondence to Rhian M. Touyz, MD, PhD, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 Pine Ave West, Montreal, H2W 1R7, Canada. E-mail touyzr{at}ircm.qc.ca
| Abstract |
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Key Words: cations TRPM channels vessels aldosterone angiotensin II siRNA
| Introduction |
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Intracellular Mg2+ homeostasis is tightly regulated. In VSMCs, basal [Mg2+]i is maintained at 0.5 to 0.6 mmol/L.11,12 Although Mg2+ is the second most abundant intracellular cation and the predominant divalent cation, molecular mechanisms regulating cellular Mg2+ remain elusive.13 Some studies suggested that transmembrane Mg2+ transport occurs through the Na+/Ca2+ antiporter,14 whereas others demonstrated that Mg2+ efflux is linked to Na+/H+ exchange.15 Renal paracellular Mg2+ transport is mediated via paracellin-1.16,17 We reported that Mg2+ efflux is regulated by a Na+-dependent Mg2+ exchanger linked to the Na+/H+ antiporter in VSMCs.15,18
Although studies of Mg2+ fluxes in mammalian cells have indicated the presence of functionally active plasma membrane Mg2+ transport mechanisms, proteins responsible for these fluxes have not been identified.19 Recent investigations suggested that two novel ion channels of the long, or melastatin-related, transient receptor potential (TRPM) ion channel subfamily, TRPM6 and TRPM7, are critically involved in Mg2+ influx in epithelial and neuronal cells.20,21 TRPM6/7 are polypeptides with dual-function ion channel/protein kinases, characterized by six transmembrane spanning domains with an adjacent coiled coil region, a long, highly conserved cytoplasmic N-terminal region, and a cytoplasmic C terminus, which has enzymatic activity.2224 TRPM6 and TRPM7, which have an overall amino acid sequence homology of 52%, harbor serine/threonine kinase domains in their C termini.21,25,26 TRPM6 is preferentially expressed in small intestine, colon, and kidney, participating in gastrointestinal and renal Mg2+ absorption.21,27,28 Mutations in TRPM6 cause hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia.27,29,30
Expression of TRPM7 is widespread with transcripts in brain, spleen, lung, kidney, heart, and liver.22,3133 It is also expressed in lymphoid-derived cell lines, hematopoietic cells, granulocytes, leukemia cells, and microglia.20,25 In various cell lines, TRPM7 is regulated by intracellular levels of Mg-ATP and is strongly activated when Mg-ATP falls below 1 mmol/L.32,34 Studies in microglial and HEK293-transfected cells demonstrated that TRPM7 activity is also modulated through its endogenous kinase in a cAMP-, PKA-, and Src-dependent manner25,35 and is inactivated by PIP2 hydrolysis in cardiac fibroblasts.36
To our knowledge nothing is known about the status of TRPM7 in the vasculature. It is unclear whether this cation channel influences Mg2+ transport in vascular cells and whether vasoactive agents regulate TRPM7. To gain insights into the putative role of TRPM7 in vascular Mg2+ homeostasis, we used a combination of biochemical, pharmacological, molecular and genetic approaches to investigate the presence and functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMCs. Our data demonstrate that VSMCs possess functionally active membrane-associated TRPM7 channels that are regulated by angiotensin II (Ang II) and aldosterone. Findings from this study identify for the first time that TRPM7 is a key modulator of vascular Mg2+ homeostasis and that it plays an important role in regulating VSMC function.
| Materials and Methods |
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Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
Expression of TRPM7 gene was studied by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Primers for rat, mouse, and human TRPM7 are detailed in the Table. Cells were stimulated with vehicle (water), Ang II (107 mol/L), or aldosterone (107 mol/L) for 2 to 24 hours. Total RNA was extracted from cells (TRIzol Reagent). Reverse transcription was performed in 20 µL containing 2 µg RNA, 1.0 µL of 10 mmol/L dNTP, 4 µL of 5x first strand buffer, 1.0 µL oligo-(dT)12 to 18 primer (0.5 µg/µL), 1.0 µL of 200 U/µL M-MLV reverse transcriptase (GIBCO-BRL), 1.0 µL of rRnasin (Rnase inhibitor, 40 U/µL), 2 µL dithiothreitol (0.1 mol/L), for 1 hour, 37°C. The reaction was stopped by heating at 70°C for 15 minutes. Two microliters of resulting cDNA mixture was amplified using specific primers (Table). TRPM7 amplification by PCR involved 95°C for 5 seconds, 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 seconds, 54°C for 30 seconds, 72°C for 30 seconds, and extension for 5 minutes at 72°C. GAPDH amplification by PCR involved 94°C for 5 minutes, 30 cycles of 94°C for 30 seconds, 57°C for 30 seconds, 72°C for 45 seconds, and extension for 5 minutes, at 72°C. Amplification products were electrophoresed on 1% agarose gel containing ethidium bromide (0.5 µg/mL). Bands corresponding to RT-PCR products were visualized by UV light and digitized using AlphaImager software. Band intensity was quantified using the ImageQuant (version 3.3, Molecular Dynamics) software.
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TRPM7 Protein Expression
Total protein was extracted from VSMCs as we described.11,37 Briefly, cells were washed with cold PBS and then harvested in HEPES buffer containing (in mmol/L), HEPES 10, pH 7.4, NaF 50, NaCl 50, EDTA 5, EGTA 5, Na pyrophosphate 50, containing triton-X 100 0.5%, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) 1mmol/L, leupeptin 1 µg/mL, and aprotinin 1 µg/mL. Cells were disrupted by brief sonication. Samples were then centrifuged (500g, 10 minutes, 4°C) to remove nuclei. For membrane and cytosol separation, samples were centrifuged at 100 000g for 1 hour at 4°C. The cell membrane was washed once with the buffer described above and then resuspended in buffer containing 100 mmol/L Tris-HCl, 300 mmol/L NaCl, 1% Triron X-100, and 0.1% SDS containing 2 mmol/L EDTA, 2 mmol/L PMSF, and 0.8 µg/mL leupeptin. Proteins (20 µg) were separated by electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gel (7.5%) and transferred onto a polyvinylidene diflouride membrane. Nonspecific binding sites were blocked with 5% skim milk in Tris-buffered saline solution with Tween (TBS-T) (1 hour, room temperature). Membranes were incubated with anti-TRPM7 antibody (1:750) (Abcam Inc) in TBS-T-milk at 4°C overnight with agitation. Washed membranes were incubated with horse-radish peroxidase-conjugated second antibody (1:2000) in TBS-T-Milk (room temperature, 1 hour). Membranes were washed and immunoreactive proteins detected by chemiluminescence. Blots were analyzed densitometrically (Image-Quant software, Molecular Dynamics).
Measurement of [Mg2+]i and [Ca2+]i in VSMCs
The selective fluorescent probes, mag fura-2AM and fura-2AM, were used to measure [Mg2+]i and [Ca2+]i, respectively, as described (see online data supplement available at http://circres.ahajournals.org).15,18,3840 [Mg2+]i responses to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg2+ (0 to 5 mmol/L) were measured in cells incubated in Mg2+-free, Ca2+-containing modified Hanks buffer (in mmol/L, NaCl 137, NaHCO3 4.2, NaHPO4 3, KCl 5.4, KH2PO4 0.4, CaCl2 1.3, glucose 10, and HEPES 5; pH 7.4). Cells were exposed to Mg2+-free buffer for 15 to 20 minutes before addition of extracellular Mg2+. In some experiments, Ang II effects were assessed in Na+-free Hanks buffer (Na+ isosmotically replaced with N-methylglucamine).39 [Ca2+]i responses to ionomycin (106 mol/L) were determined in cells incubated for 15 to 20 minutes in modified Hanks buffer (as earlier) containing Mg2+ (mmol/L, MgCl2 0.5 and MgSO4 0.8).
RNA Interference and Cell Transfection
High-performance purity grade (>90% pure) small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were generated against TRPM7. Sequences identical in human and mouse but that do not match other sequences in GenBank were used. siRNAs for knocking down TRPM7 were synthesized by QIAGEN Inc. The DNA target sequences of the annealed double stand siRNA that we used were as follows: 5'-AACCGG-AGGTCAGGTCGAAAT-3' (18841904), which has 100% homology to mouse gene only, and 5'-AAGCAGAGTGACCT-GGTAGAT-3', which has 100% homology to both mouse and human gene. siRNA, with a nonsilencing oligonucleotide sequence (nonsilencing siRNA) that does not recognize any known homology to mammalian genes, was also generated as a negative control.
Cells were seeded at a density of 1.6x105 cells/well in 6-well plates and grown in DMEM containing 10% FCS and antibiotics. One day after seeding, cells were transfected with siRNA using RNAiFect Transfection Reagent (Qiagen Inc) according to the manufacturers instructions. Briefly, siRNA (5 µg) was mixed with EC-R buffer (Qiagen Inc) (100 µL) to which RNAiFect transfection reagent (15 µL) was added. After mixing (15 minutes), the lipid-formulation was added dropwise onto the cells. Control cells were exposed to transfectant in the absence of siRNA. Forty eight hours after transfection, gene silencing was monitored at the mRNA and protein levels by RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively.
Measurement of DNA and Protein Synthesis by Ang II in TRPM7 siRNA-Transfected VSMCs
Cells were seeded, at an initial concentration of 1x105 cells/mL, into 24-well multiwell plates and grown in DMEM containing 10% FCS and antibiotics. One day after seeding, cells were exposed to transfectant alone (control cells) or transfected with siRNA or nonsilencing siRNA as described earlier. Thirty six hours after transfection, cells were stimulated with Ang II (1011 to 106 mol/L, 24 hours) in the absence and presence of valsartan, selective AT1 receptor blocker (105 mol/L). DNA and protein synthesis were evaluated by measuring incorporation of 3[H]-thymidine (5 µCi/mL) and 3[H]-leucine (2 µCi/mL, respectively, as we described.12 Briefly, after incubation, radioactive medium was removed, cells washed with ice cold physiological buffered saline, incubated with trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (0.75 mol/L, 15 minutes), washed with cold TCA, and incubated with NaOH (0.2 mol/L for thymidine, 1 mol/L for leucine, 60 minutes, room temperature). Relative incorporation of 3[H]-thymidine and 3[H]-leucine was determined by liquid scintillation counting.
Statistical Analysis
Data are presented as mean±SEM. Groups were compared using one-way ANOVA or Student t test as appropriate. Tukey-Kramer correction was used to compensate for multiple testing procedures. A value of P<0.05 was significant.
| Results |
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To evaluate TRPM7 protein content in VSMCs, immunoblotting was performed using anti-TRPM7 antibody.
-Actin was used as an internal control. As shown in Figure 2A, SDS-PAGE analysis of total cell homogenate revealed a major band migrating at the 160- to 170-kDa position, corresponding to TRPM7. To establish whether TRPM7 is membrane-associated, we also probed for TRPM7 content in membrane-rich fractions. Figure 2B demonstrates that TRPM7 is present in VSMC membranes and that Ang II stimulation significantly increases membrane TRPM7 content (P<0.05 versus control). Daudi cell lysate (Abcam Inc) was used as a positive control.
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Downregulation of TRPM7 Attenuates Basal [Mg2+]i and Abrogates Mg2+ Influx
The functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMC [Mg2+]i regulation was assessed in cells in which TRPM7 gene was silenced by siRNA. TRPM7 mRNA expression and protein abundance were markedly reduced in human and mouse VSMCs transfected with siRNA, but not in control cells or cells transfected with nonsilencing siRNA (Figure 3). Basal [Mg2+]i was significantly decreased (P<0.01) in siRNA-transfected cells (0.39±0.01 mmol/L) compared with control (0.54±0.01 mmol/L) and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (0.51±0.02 mmol/L). Results were not significantly different between control and nonsilencing transfected cells.
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Exposure of VSMCs to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg2+ resulted in a significant [Mg2+]i rise (P<0.01) in control cells and in cells transfected with nonsilencing siRNA (Figure 4). Maximal [Mg2+]i responses were obtained at 3 mmol/L extracellular Mg2+, above which [Mg2+]i did not increase further. Exposure of siRNA-transfected cells to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg2+ induced a modest, but nonsignificant increase, in [Mg2+]i (Figure 4).
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To evaluate whether TRPM7 regulates Ca2+ homeostasis in VSMCs, [Ca2+]i effects of ionomycin were assessed in TRPM7 knockdown cells. Ionomycin induced a rapid [Ca2+]i rise as evidenced by increased fura-2 fluorescence. Basal [Ca2+]i was unaltered in siTRPM7-deficient cells (106±10 nmol/L) versus control (94±4 nmol/L) and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (102±6 nmol/L). Although ionomycin-mediated [Ca2+]i responses were slightly reduced in TRPM7-deficient cells, responses were not significantly different from control cells (Figure 1, online data supplement).
TRPM7 Plays a Role in Chronic, but Not in Acute, Ang IIMediated [Mg2+]i Regulation
Short-term VSMC exposure (5 to 10 minutes) to Ang II resulted in a rapid [Mg2+]i decrease (Figure 5). This effect was abrogated in Na+-free conditions (Figure 5B). Results were similar in control, siRNA-transfected, and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (Figure 5A). Long-term Ang II stimulation (24 to 30 hours) was associated with an increase in [Mg2+]i in control and nonsilencing transfected cells, but not in TRPM7 knockdown cells (Figure 5C).
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Essential Role of TRPM7 in Ang IIStimulated VSMC Growth
To evaluate the functional significance of Ang IIregulated TRPM7, growth effects of Ang II were assessed in TRPM7 knockdown VSMCs. As demonstrated in Figure 6, Ang II dose-dependently increased incorporation of 3[H]-thymidine and 3[H]-leucine, indices of DNA and protein synthesis, respectively, in control and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells, but not in siRNA-transfected cells. Valsartan, a selective AT1 receptor blocker, inhibited Ang IImediated cell growth (Figure 2, online data supplement).
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| Discussion |
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Transient receptor potential channels, particularly of the TRPC (for canonical TRP) and TRPV (for vanilloid TRP) subfamilies, have been demonstrated to be functionally important in regulating Ca2+ entry in VSMCs and endothelial cells.4143 To our knowledge, nothing is known about TRPM7 status in vascular cells, although these ion channels have been well characterized in renal and gastric epithelial cells and in numerous mammalian immortalized cell lines.21,22,27,28,33 In the present study, we demonstrate that mouse, rat, and human VSMCs possess membrane-associated TRPM7.
Many vasoactive agents influence VSMC function, of which Ang II is particularly important. Ang II stimulates vascular contraction, growth, and inflammation, in part through Mg2+-dependent processes.39,44 Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid hormone that influences cellular Mg2+ metabolism,45,46 is increasingly being recognized as an important modulator of vascular function.47,48 In this study, we demonstrate that Ang II and aldosterone regulate TRPM7 mRNA and protein content. Exact mechanisms whereby these agonists control TRPM expression are unknown. However, both peptides stimulate activity of many transcription factors, which could play a role in de novo TRPM production.
To evaluate the functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMCs, we generated siRNAs to selectively reduce TRPM7 expression and used two independent assays to test siRNA activity and specificity. First, we questioned whether siRNA would attenuate TRPM7 content, and second, we used fluorescence digital imaging to test whether siRNA prevents Mg2+ and Ca2+ transmembrane transport. Using a lipid-based system for siRNA transfection, almost 100% TRPM7 gene silencing was obtained as evidenced by significantly reduced mRNA and protein expression. Previous studies reported that cultured cells rendered TRPM7-deficient via cre-loxmediated destruction of the TRPM7 gene, undergo growth arrest and die after a few days in culture.20,49 In our investigations, cells remained viable for the duration of our studies. This may relate to the fact that TRPM7 was transiently downregulated and that experiments were performed 48 hours after transfection. Cell death was previously reported to occur 48 to 72 hours after TRPM7 gene silencing in TRPM7-deficient cell lines.20
Basal [Mg2+]i was reduced in TRPM7-deficient cells, confirming the importance of TRPM7 in VSMC Mg2+ homeostasis. Similar findings were observed in stably transfected 293-HEK cells expressing human TRPM7 mutants and in TRPM7 knockout cell lines.20 Increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg2+ resulted in a marked [Mg2+]i rise in control cells. In contrast, in TRPM7-depeleted cells (by siRNA), [Mg2+]i did not change significantly when exposed to high extracellular Mg2+ levels. These findings suggest that TRPM7 facilitates transmembrane Mg2+ transport in VSMCs, probably by promoting Mg2+ influx through an ion channel mechanism.32,50,51 [Mg2+]i seems to be highly regulated, because [Mg2+]i plateaued despite increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg2+ above 3 mmol/L. Possible reasons for this may relate first to the reciprocal interaction between intracellular Mg2+ and channel activity and second to the presence of regulatory Mg2+ efflux systems. There is now compelling evidence that intracellular Mg2+ negatively influences TRPM7 channel activity.32,34 As [Mg2+]i increases, TRPM7 activity declines. This inhibitory feedback loop between excess intracellular Mg2+ and channel activity may be important in maintaining [Mg2+]i within a physiological range and in protecting cells against Mg2+ overload. It is also possible that as cellular Mg2+ levels increase, Mg2+ efflux systems, such as the Na+/Mg2+ exchanger, are activated.
Data from studies in cell lines demonstrate that TRPM7 has a unique permeation profile with a permeability sequence of Zn2+
Ni2+>Ba2+>Co2+>Mg2+
Mn2+
Sr2+
Cd2+
Ca2+.31 Because Ca2+ plays a fundamental regulatory role in VSMC function, and because previous studies demonstrated that TRPM7 is a Ca2+-permeant ion channel,52,53 we questioned whether TRPM7, in addition to regulating Mg2+ influx, influences transmembrane Ca2+ transport in VSMCs. Basal [Ca2+]i was unaltered in TRPM7-deficient cells, indicating that this ion channel may not be important in ambient Ca2+ homeostasis in VSMCs. These findings are in contrast to neuronal-derived cells, where TRPM7 seems to be a major regulator of Ca2+ influx.25,52 Ionomycin increased [Ca2+]i in both control and TRPM7 knockdown cells. Although responses were slightly attenuated in TRPM7-deficient cells, these effects were not significantly different from control cells. Taken together, our data indicate that TRPM7 channel is a major regulator of VSMC Mg2+ homeostasis and that it may be less important in maintaining [Ca2+]i. Our findings confirm others demonstrating that TRPM7 channels are ion selective and that sensitivity for Mg2+ is greater than that for Ca2+.52,53
A major finding in our study relates to the temporal regulation of TRPM7 and [Mg2+]i by Ang II. Short-term exposure of cells to Ang II resulted in a rapid [Mg2+]i decrease, which was abrogated in Na+-free conditions. Responses were similar in control and TRPM7 knockdown cells. However, long-term Ang II exposure resulted in a significant [Mg2+]i increase, which was not evident in TRPM7-deficient cells. These findings suggest that acute Ang II stimulation mediates transmembrane Mg2+ transport through Na+-dependent, TRPM7-independent pathways, whereas chronic stimulation leads to TRMP7-dependent Mg2+ influx. Putative mechanisms underlying these events could relate to initial activation of the Na+/Mg2+ exchanger by Ang II, resulting in Mg2+ efflux, as we previously reported,18,44 followed by activation of TRPM7 leading to Mg2+ influx and increased [Mg2+]i. (Figure 7). Upregulation of Ang IIstimulated TRPM7 may be due, in part, to increased TRPM7 content, as we demonstrated at the gene and protein levels. It is also possible that Ang IIinduced [Mg2+]i reduction stimulates TRPM7, because intracellular Mg2+ negatively influences TRPM7 channel activity.32,34
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At the functional level, we demonstrate that TRPM7 is important in Ang IIregulated growth of VSMCs. Incorporation of 3[H]-thymidine and 3[H]-leucine was significantly increased by Ang II in control but not in TRPM7 knockdown cells, indicating that Ang IIstimulated DNA and protein synthesis in VSMCs require functionally active TRPM7. These processes are mediated through AT1 receptors, because valsartan inhibited Ang IIinduced effects. Although previous studies suggested that TRPM7 is involved in cell growth,20,54 our findings here are the first to demonstrate that TRPM7/Mg2+-dependent pathways play a role in Ang IIregulated growth of VSMCs.
In summary, using a combination of biochemical, pharmacological, and genetic tools, we provide evidence that VSMCs possess functionally active TRPM7 ion channels that play an important role in modulating VSMC Mg2+ homeostasis and growth. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Ang II regulates VSMC [Mg2+]i in a temporal and biphasic fashion such that acute Ang II stimulation mediates Mg2+ efflux through the Na+/Mg2+ exchanger, whereas chronic stimulation induces Mg2+ influx through TRPM7-sensitive pathways. To our knowledge, these are the first data to identify a putative regulator of transmembrane Mg2+ transport in VSMCs. These findings contribute to the further understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in Mg2+ homeostasis in vascular cells and to the signaling mechanisms underlying Ang IImediated growth of VSMCs.
| Acknowledgments |
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| Footnotes |
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