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(Circulation Research. 2005;96:207.)
© 2005 American Heart Association, Inc.

Cellular Biology

Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 7 Ion Channels Regulate Magnesium Homeostasis in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Role of Angiotensin II

Ying He, Guoying Yao, Carmine Savoia, Rhian M. Touyz

From the CIHR Multidisciplinary Research Group on Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, Canada.

Correspondence to Rhian M. Touyz, MD, PhD, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 Pine Ave West, Montreal, H2W 1R7, Canada. E-mail touyzr{at}ircm.qc.ca

	Abstract

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Magnesium modulates vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) function. However, molecular mechanisms regulating VSMC Mg²⁺ remain unknown. Using biochemical, pharmacological, and genetic tools, the role of transient receptor potential membrane melastatin 7 (TRPM7) cation channel in VSMC Mg²⁺ homeostasis was evaluated. Rat, mouse, and human VSMCs were studied. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting demonstrated TRPM7 presence in VSMCs (membrane and cytosol). Angiotensin II (Ang II) and aldosterone increased TRPM7 expression. Gene silencing using small interfering RNA (siRNA) against TRPM7, downregulated TRPM7 (mRNA and protein). Basal [Mg²⁺]_i, measured by mag fura-2AM, was reduced in siRNA-transfected cells (0.39±0.01 mmol/L) versus controls (0.54±0.01 mmol/L; P<0.01). Extracellular Mg²⁺ dose-dependently increased [Mg²⁺]_i in control cells (E_max 0.70±0.02 mmol/L) and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (E_max 0.71±0.04 mmol/L), but not in siRNA-transfected cells (E_max 0.5±0.01 mmol/L). The functional significance of TRPM7 was evaluated by assessing [Mg²⁺]_i and growth responses to Ang II in TRPM7 knockdown cells. Acute Ang II stimulation decreased [Mg²⁺]_i in control and TRPM7-deficient cells in a Na⁺-dependent manner. Chronic stimulation increased [Mg²⁺]_i in control, but not in siRNA-transfected VSMCs. Ang II–induced DNA and protein synthesis, measured by ³[H]-thymidine and ³[H]-leucine incorporation, respectively, were increased in control and nonsilencing cells, but not in TRPM7 knockdown VSMCs. Our data indicate that VSMCs possess membrane-associated, Ang II–, and aldosterone-regulated TRPM7 channels, which play a role in regulating basal [Mg²⁺]_i, transmembrane Mg²⁺ transport and DNA and protein synthesis. These novel findings identify TRPM7 as a functionally important regulator of Mg²⁺ homeostasis and growth in VSMCs.

Key Words: cations • TRPM channels • vessels • aldosterone • angiotensin II • siRNA

	Introduction

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Magnesium plays a major role in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) function. Increased intracellular Mg²⁺ concentration ([Mg²⁺]_i) causes vasodilation and attenuates agonist-induced vasoconstriction, whereas reduced [Mg²⁺]_i has opposite effects, leading to hypercontractility and impaired vasorelaxation.^1–4 Mg²⁺ also influences growth processes associated with remodeling and fibrosis, characteristic features of vascular damage in hypertension, atherosclerosis, and diabetes.^5,6 At the subcellular level, these effects occur, at least in part, through Mg²⁺-dependent regulation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, tyrosine kinases, and reactive oxygen species, important signaling molecules involved in VSMC proliferation, fibrosis, and inflammation.^7–9 Microarray studies demonstrated that changes in [Mg²⁺]_i have potent modulatory actions on expression of various growth signaling molecules.¹⁰ We recently reported that altered [Mg²⁺]_i influences cell cycle progression and VSMC growth by modulating cyclin-dependent kinases and MAP kinases.¹¹

Intracellular Mg²⁺ homeostasis is tightly regulated. In VSMCs, basal [Mg²⁺]_i is maintained at 0.5 to 0.6 mmol/L.^11,12 Although Mg²⁺ is the second most abundant intracellular cation and the predominant divalent cation, molecular mechanisms regulating cellular Mg²⁺ remain elusive.¹³ Some studies suggested that transmembrane Mg²⁺ transport occurs through the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ antiporter,¹⁴ whereas others demonstrated that Mg²⁺ efflux is linked to Na⁺/H⁺ exchange.¹⁵ Renal paracellular Mg²⁺ transport is mediated via paracellin-1.^16,17 We reported that Mg²⁺ efflux is regulated by a Na⁺-dependent Mg²⁺ exchanger linked to the Na⁺/H⁺ antiporter in VSMCs.^15,18

Although studies of Mg²⁺ fluxes in mammalian cells have indicated the presence of functionally active plasma membrane Mg²⁺ transport mechanisms, proteins responsible for these fluxes have not been identified.¹⁹ Recent investigations suggested that two novel ion channels of the long, or melastatin-related, transient receptor potential (TRPM) ion channel subfamily, TRPM6 and TRPM7, are critically involved in Mg²⁺ influx in epithelial and neuronal cells.^20,21 TRPM6/7 are polypeptides with dual-function ion channel/protein kinases, characterized by six transmembrane spanning domains with an adjacent coiled coil region, a long, highly conserved cytoplasmic N-terminal region, and a cytoplasmic C terminus, which has enzymatic activity.^22–24 TRPM6 and TRPM7, which have an overall amino acid sequence homology of 52%, harbor serine/threonine kinase domains in their C termini.^21,25,26 TRPM6 is preferentially expressed in small intestine, colon, and kidney, participating in gastrointestinal and renal Mg²⁺ absorption.^21,27,28 Mutations in TRPM6 cause hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia.^27,29,30

Expression of TRPM7 is widespread with transcripts in brain, spleen, lung, kidney, heart, and liver.^22,31–33 It is also expressed in lymphoid-derived cell lines, hematopoietic cells, granulocytes, leukemia cells, and microglia.^20,25 In various cell lines, TRPM7 is regulated by intracellular levels of Mg-ATP and is strongly activated when Mg-ATP falls below 1 mmol/L.^32,34 Studies in microglial and HEK293-transfected cells demonstrated that TRPM7 activity is also modulated through its endogenous kinase in a cAMP-, PKA-, and Src-dependent manner^25,35 and is inactivated by PIP2 hydrolysis in cardiac fibroblasts.³⁶

To our knowledge nothing is known about the status of TRPM7 in the vasculature. It is unclear whether this cation channel influences Mg²⁺ transport in vascular cells and whether vasoactive agents regulate TRPM7. To gain insights into the putative role of TRPM7 in vascular Mg²⁺ homeostasis, we used a combination of biochemical, pharmacological, molecular and genetic approaches to investigate the presence and functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMCs. Our data demonstrate that VSMCs possess functionally active membrane-associated TRPM7 channels that are regulated by angiotensin II (Ang II) and aldosterone. Findings from this study identify for the first time that TRPM7 is a key modulator of vascular Mg²⁺ homeostasis and that it plays an important role in regulating VSMC function.

	Materials and Methods

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Cell Culture
The study was approved by the Animal and Human Ethics Committee of the Clinical Research Institute of Montreal and performed according to the recommendations of the Canadian Council for Animal Care. VSMCs from mesenteric arteries and aorta from Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY; Taconic Farms, Germantown, NY) and C57/B6J mice (Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Me) were isolated by enzymatic digestion and cultured as we described.¹¹ VSMCs from healthy humans were derived from small arteries obtained from gluteal biopsies as we detailed.³⁷ Cells were maintained in DMEM containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). Low passaged cells (passages 2 to 7) were studied.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
Expression of TRPM7 gene was studied by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Primers for rat, mouse, and human TRPM7 are detailed in the Table. Cells were stimulated with vehicle (water), Ang II (10^–7 mol/L), or aldosterone (10^–7 mol/L) for 2 to 24 hours. Total RNA was extracted from cells (TRIzol Reagent). Reverse transcription was performed in 20 µL containing 2 µg RNA, 1.0 µL of 10 mmol/L dNTP, 4 µL of 5x first strand buffer, 1.0 µL oligo-(dT)_{12 to 18} primer (0.5 µg/µL), 1.0 µL of 200 U/µL M-MLV reverse transcriptase (GIBCO-BRL), 1.0 µL of rRnasin (Rnase inhibitor, 40 U/µL), 2 µL dithiothreitol (0.1 mol/L), for 1 hour, 37°C. The reaction was stopped by heating at 70°C for 15 minutes. Two microliters of resulting cDNA mixture was amplified using specific primers (Table). TRPM7 amplification by PCR involved 95°C for 5 seconds, 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 seconds, 54°C for 30 seconds, 72°C for 30 seconds, and extension for 5 minutes at 72°C. GAPDH amplification by PCR involved 94°C for 5 minutes, 30 cycles of 94°C for 30 seconds, 57°C for 30 seconds, 72°C for 45 seconds, and extension for 5 minutes, at 72°C. Amplification products were electrophoresed on 1% agarose gel containing ethidium bromide (0.5 µg/mL). Bands corresponding to RT-PCR products were visualized by UV light and digitized using AlphaImager software. Band intensity was quantified using the ImageQuant (version 3.3, Molecular Dynamics) software.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 1. Primer Sequence for TRPM7 Amplification by RT-PCR in Rat, Mouse, and Human VSMCs

TRPM7 Protein Expression
Total protein was extracted from VSMCs as we described.^11,37 Briefly, cells were washed with cold PBS and then harvested in HEPES buffer containing (in mmol/L), HEPES 10, pH 7.4, NaF 50, NaCl 50, EDTA 5, EGTA 5, Na pyrophosphate 50, containing triton-X 100 0.5%, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) 1mmol/L, leupeptin 1 µg/mL, and aprotinin 1 µg/mL. Cells were disrupted by brief sonication. Samples were then centrifuged (500g, 10 minutes, 4°C) to remove nuclei. For membrane and cytosol separation, samples were centrifuged at 100 000g for 1 hour at 4°C. The cell membrane was washed once with the buffer described above and then resuspended in buffer containing 100 mmol/L Tris-HCl, 300 mmol/L NaCl, 1% Triron X-100, and 0.1% SDS containing 2 mmol/L EDTA, 2 mmol/L PMSF, and 0.8 µg/mL leupeptin. Proteins (20 µg) were separated by electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gel (7.5%) and transferred onto a polyvinylidene diflouride membrane. Nonspecific binding sites were blocked with 5% skim milk in Tris-buffered saline solution with Tween (TBS-T) (1 hour, room temperature). Membranes were incubated with anti-TRPM7 antibody (1:750) (Abcam Inc) in TBS-T-milk at 4°C overnight with agitation. Washed membranes were incubated with horse-radish peroxidase-conjugated second antibody (1:2000) in TBS-T-Milk (room temperature, 1 hour). Membranes were washed and immunoreactive proteins detected by chemiluminescence. Blots were analyzed densitometrically (Image-Quant software, Molecular Dynamics).

Measurement of [Mg²⁺]_i and [Ca²⁺]_i in VSMCs
The selective fluorescent probes, mag fura-2AM and fura-2AM, were used to measure [Mg²⁺]_i and [Ca²⁺]_i, respectively, as described (see online data supplement available at http://circres.ahajournals.org).^{15,18,38–40} [Mg²⁺]_i responses to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg²⁺ (0 to 5 mmol/L) were measured in cells incubated in Mg²⁺-free, Ca²⁺-containing modified Hanks’ buffer (in mmol/L, NaCl 137, NaHCO₃ 4.2, NaHPO₄ 3, KCl 5.4, KH₂PO₄ 0.4, CaCl₂ 1.3, glucose 10, and HEPES 5; pH 7.4). Cells were exposed to Mg²⁺-free buffer for 15 to 20 minutes before addition of extracellular Mg²⁺. In some experiments, Ang II effects were assessed in Na⁺-free Hanks’ buffer (Na⁺ isosmotically replaced with N-methylglucamine).³⁹ [Ca²⁺]_i responses to ionomycin (10^–6 mol/L) were determined in cells incubated for 15 to 20 minutes in modified Hank’s buffer (as earlier) containing Mg²⁺ (mmol/L, MgCl₂ 0.5 and MgSO₄ 0.8).

RNA Interference and Cell Transfection
High-performance purity grade (>90% pure) small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were generated against TRPM7. Sequences identical in human and mouse but that do not match other sequences in GenBank were used. siRNAs for knocking down TRPM7 were synthesized by QIAGEN Inc. The DNA target sequences of the annealed double stand siRNA that we used were as follows: 5'-AACCGG-AGGTCAGGTCGAAAT-3' (1884–1904), which has 100% homology to mouse gene only, and 5'-AAGCAGAGTGACCT-GGTAGAT-3', which has 100% homology to both mouse and human gene. siRNA, with a nonsilencing oligonucleotide sequence (nonsilencing siRNA) that does not recognize any known homology to mammalian genes, was also generated as a negative control.

Cells were seeded at a density of 1.6x10⁵ cells/well in 6-well plates and grown in DMEM containing 10% FCS and antibiotics. One day after seeding, cells were transfected with siRNA using RNAiFect Transfection Reagent (Qiagen Inc) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, siRNA (5 µg) was mixed with EC-R buffer (Qiagen Inc) (100 µL) to which RNAiFect transfection reagent (15 µL) was added. After mixing (15 minutes), the lipid-formulation was added dropwise onto the cells. Control cells were exposed to transfectant in the absence of siRNA. Forty eight hours after transfection, gene silencing was monitored at the mRNA and protein levels by RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively.

Measurement of DNA and Protein Synthesis by Ang II in TRPM7 siRNA-Transfected VSMCs
Cells were seeded, at an initial concentration of 1x10⁵ cells/mL, into 24-well multiwell plates and grown in DMEM containing 10% FCS and antibiotics. One day after seeding, cells were exposed to transfectant alone (control cells) or transfected with siRNA or nonsilencing siRNA as described earlier. Thirty six hours after transfection, cells were stimulated with Ang II (10^–11 to 10^–6 mol/L, 24 hours) in the absence and presence of valsartan, selective AT₁ receptor blocker (10^–5 mol/L). DNA and protein synthesis were evaluated by measuring incorporation of ³[H]-thymidine (5 µCi/mL) and ³[H]-leucine (2 µCi/mL, respectively, as we described.¹² Briefly, after incubation, radioactive medium was removed, cells washed with ice cold physiological buffered saline, incubated with trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (0.75 mol/L, 15 minutes), washed with cold TCA, and incubated with NaOH (0.2 mol/L for thymidine, 1 mol/L for leucine, 60 minutes, room temperature). Relative incorporation of ³[H]-thymidine and ³[H]-leucine was determined by liquid scintillation counting.

Statistical Analysis
Data are presented as mean±SEM. Groups were compared using one-way ANOVA or Student t test as appropriate. Tukey-Kramer correction was used to compensate for multiple testing procedures. A value of P<0.05 was significant.

	Results

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TRPM7 Expression in VSMCs
Presence of TRPM7 transcript was assessed by RT-PCR. GAPDH mRNA was used as an internal housekeeping gene and results were expressed as the ratio of TRPM7:GAPDH. As demonstrated in Figure 1A, mRNA for TRPM7 is present in VSMCs. Ang II and aldosterone significantly increased TRPM7 mRNA expression (Figure 1B). Maximal agonist-induced responses were obtained within 4 to 6 hours of stimulation.

View larger version (41K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. A, TRPM7 transcript is present in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). mRNA was prepared from rat VSMCs (from aorta, Ao, and mesenteric arteries, Mes) and mouse VSMCs (from mesenteric arteries). TRPM7-specific forward and reverse primers amplified a product of the correct size but not in negative controls (NC) when cDNA was omitted. M indicates marker; PCR, polymerase chain reaction. B, Effects of Ang II and aldosterone on TRPM7 mRNA expression. mRNA was prepared from rat VSMCs exposed to Ang II or aldosterone (10–7 mol/L, Aldo) for 2 to 24 hours. Representative scans demonstrate amplified PCR products corresponding to TRPM7 and GAPDH. Bar graphs are mean±SEM of 3 to 5 experiments. Data are presented as TRPM7:GAPDH ratio. *P<0.05 vs Control (Cont) counterpart.

To evaluate TRPM7 protein content in VSMCs, immunoblotting was performed using anti-TRPM7 antibody. -Actin was used as an internal control. As shown in Figure 2A, SDS-PAGE analysis of total cell homogenate revealed a major band migrating at the 160- to 170-kDa position, corresponding to TRPM7. To establish whether TRPM7 is membrane-associated, we also probed for TRPM7 content in membrane-rich fractions. Figure 2B demonstrates that TRPM7 is present in VSMC membranes and that Ang II stimulation significantly increases membrane TRPM7 content (P<0.05 versus control). Daudi cell lysate (Abcam Inc) was used as a positive control.

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. TRPM7 protein expression in VSMCs. A, Total protein lysates from human VSMCs were prepared for immunoblotting. Membranes were probed with anti-TRPM7 antibody and reprobed with anti–-actin antibody. Daudi cell lysate was used as a positive control (PC). B, Membrane protein lysates from VSMCs were probed for TRPM7 by immunoblotting. Immunoblots are representative of 3 experiments. *P<0.05 vs control; **P<0.01 vs control.

Downregulation of TRPM7 Attenuates Basal [Mg²⁺]_i and Abrogates Mg²⁺ Influx
The functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMC [Mg²⁺]_i regulation was assessed in cells in which TRPM7 gene was silenced by siRNA. TRPM7 mRNA expression and protein abundance were markedly reduced in human and mouse VSMCs transfected with siRNA, but not in control cells or cells transfected with nonsilencing siRNA (Figure 3). Basal [Mg²⁺]_i was significantly decreased (P<0.01) in siRNA-transfected cells (0.39±0.01 mmol/L) compared with control (0.54±0.01 mmol/L) and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (0.51±0.02 mmol/L). Results were not significantly different between control and nonsilencing transfected cells.

View larger version (29K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. TRPM7 siRNA downregulates TRPM7 expression in human VSMCs. mRNA expression and protein abundance were assessed by RT-PCR (A) and Western blotting (B), respectively, in human VSMCs transfected with TRPM7 siRNA or nonsilencing (NS) siRNA. Control cells were exposed to transfectant without siRNA. C, Bar graphs corresponding to representative immunoblots. Data are expressed as the TRPM7:GAPDH ratio. Results are presented as mean±SEM of 4 experiments. **P<0.01 vs other groups.

Exposure of VSMCs to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg²⁺ resulted in a significant [Mg²⁺]_i rise (P<0.01) in control cells and in cells transfected with nonsilencing siRNA (Figure 4). Maximal [Mg²⁺]_i responses were obtained at 3 mmol/L extracellular Mg²⁺, above which [Mg²⁺]_i did not increase further. Exposure of siRNA-transfected cells to increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg²⁺ induced a modest, but nonsignificant increase, in [Mg²⁺]_i (Figure 4).

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Effects of increasing extracellular Mg2+ concentration ([Mg2+]e) on [Mg2+]i in TRPM7-deficient VSMCs. Mouse and human VSMCs were transfected with nonsilencing siRNA and TRPM7 siRNA as described in Materials and Methods. [Mg2+]i was measured using mag fura-2AM (4 µmol/L). Top, Representative mag fura-2AM tracings in human control cells and cells transfected with nonsilencing (NS) and TRPM7 silencing RNA. Cells were incubated in Mg2+-free Ca2+-containing Hank buffer for 15 to 20 minutes before Mg2+ addition. Arrow indicates addition of Mg2+ (2 mmol/L). Bottom, Line graphs demonstrate effects of increasing [Mg2+]e on [Mg2+]i in control and TRPM7-deficient cells. Each data point is the mean±SEM of 3 or 4 experiments with each experimental field comprising 15 to 30 cells. **P<0.01 vs other groups, P<0.001 vs other groups.

To evaluate whether TRPM7 regulates Ca²⁺ homeostasis in VSMCs, [Ca²⁺]_i effects of ionomycin were assessed in TRPM7 knockdown cells. Ionomycin induced a rapid [Ca²⁺]_i rise as evidenced by increased fura-2 fluorescence. Basal [Ca²⁺]_i was unaltered in siTRPM7-deficient cells (106±10 nmol/L) versus control (94±4 nmol/L) and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (102±6 nmol/L). Although ionomycin-mediated [Ca²⁺]_i responses were slightly reduced in TRPM7-deficient cells, responses were not significantly different from control cells (Figure 1, online data supplement).

TRPM7 Plays a Role in Chronic, but Not in Acute, Ang II–Mediated [Mg²⁺]_i Regulation
Short-term VSMC exposure (5 to 10 minutes) to Ang II resulted in a rapid [Mg²⁺]_i decrease (Figure 5). This effect was abrogated in Na⁺-free conditions (Figure 5B). Results were similar in control, siRNA-transfected, and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells (Figure 5A). Long-term Ang II stimulation (24 to 30 hours) was associated with an increase in [Mg²⁺]_i in control and nonsilencing transfected cells, but not in TRPM7 knockdown cells (Figure 5C).

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 5. TRPM7 plays a role in chronic, but not in acute, Ang II–mediated [Mg2+]i regulation. Ang II [Mg2+]i effects were assessed in VSMCs transfected with nonsilencing siRNA (NS-siRNA), siRNA against TRPM7, or in the presence of transfectant alone (Control). A, Acute Ang II–induced responses. Cells were exposed to Ang II for 5 minutes. B, Acute responses to Ang II (5 minutes) in Na+-free conditions. C, Chronic Ang II–induced responses. Cells were exposed to Ang II for 24 hours. *P<0.05 vs basal counterpart; **P<0.01 vs basal counterpart; P<0.05 vs control and NS-siRNA counterpart.

Essential Role of TRPM7 in Ang II–Stimulated VSMC Growth
To evaluate the functional significance of Ang II–regulated TRPM7, growth effects of Ang II were assessed in TRPM7 knockdown VSMCs. As demonstrated in Figure 6, Ang II dose-dependently increased incorporation of ³[H]-thymidine and ³[H]-leucine, indices of DNA and protein synthesis, respectively, in control and nonsilencing siRNA-transfected cells, but not in siRNA-transfected cells. Valsartan, a selective AT₁ receptor blocker, inhibited Ang II–mediated cell growth (Figure 2, online data supplement).

View larger version (15K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 6. Essential role of TRPM7 in Ang II–stimulated VSMC growth. Effects of Ang II on 3[H]thymidine and 3[H]leucine incorporation in control, nonsilencing- (NS-siRNA), and siRNA-transfected cells. *P<0.05 vs other groups; **P<0.01 vs other groups; P<0.05 vs NS-siRNA counterpart.

	Discussion

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In this study, we provide the first evidence that VSMCs possess TRPM7 channels, that TRPM7 is functionally active, and that this ion channel plays an essential role in regulating Mg²⁺ influx and maintaining intracellular Mg²⁺ levels. We also demonstrate that Ang II and aldosterone, which modulate vascular tone and structure, influence TRPM7 abundance. Finally, we report that Ang II–regulated TRPM7 is important in the long-term, but not in the short-term regulation of VSMC [Mg²⁺]_i and that it plays a fundamental role in cell growth. Our findings suggest that TRPM7 is a highly regulated transmembrane Mg²⁺ transporter, critically involved in VSMC Mg²⁺ homeostasis and growth.

Transient receptor potential channels, particularly of the TRPC (for canonical TRP) and TRPV (for vanilloid TRP) subfamilies, have been demonstrated to be functionally important in regulating Ca²⁺ entry in VSMCs and endothelial cells.^41–43 To our knowledge, nothing is known about TRPM7 status in vascular cells, although these ion channels have been well characterized in renal and gastric epithelial cells and in numerous mammalian immortalized cell lines.^{21,22,27,28,33} In the present study, we demonstrate that mouse, rat, and human VSMCs possess membrane-associated TRPM7.

Many vasoactive agents influence VSMC function, of which Ang II is particularly important. Ang II stimulates vascular contraction, growth, and inflammation, in part through Mg²⁺-dependent processes.^39,44 Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid hormone that influences cellular Mg²⁺ metabolism,^45,46 is increasingly being recognized as an important modulator of vascular function.^47,48 In this study, we demonstrate that Ang II and aldosterone regulate TRPM7 mRNA and protein content. Exact mechanisms whereby these agonists control TRPM expression are unknown. However, both peptides stimulate activity of many transcription factors, which could play a role in de novo TRPM production.

To evaluate the functional significance of TRPM7 in VSMCs, we generated siRNAs to selectively reduce TRPM7 expression and used two independent assays to test siRNA activity and specificity. First, we questioned whether siRNA would attenuate TRPM7 content, and second, we used fluorescence digital imaging to test whether siRNA prevents Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ transmembrane transport. Using a lipid-based system for siRNA transfection, almost 100% TRPM7 gene silencing was obtained as evidenced by significantly reduced mRNA and protein expression. Previous studies reported that cultured cells rendered TRPM7-deficient via cre-lox–mediated destruction of the TRPM7 gene, undergo growth arrest and die after a few days in culture.^20,49 In our investigations, cells remained viable for the duration of our studies. This may relate to the fact that TRPM7 was transiently downregulated and that experiments were performed 48 hours after transfection. Cell death was previously reported to occur 48 to 72 hours after TRPM7 gene silencing in TRPM7-deficient cell lines.²⁰

Basal [Mg²⁺]_i was reduced in TRPM7-deficient cells, confirming the importance of TRPM7 in VSMC Mg²⁺ homeostasis. Similar findings were observed in stably transfected 293-HEK cells expressing human TRPM7 mutants and in TRPM7 knockout cell lines.²⁰ Increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg²⁺ resulted in a marked [Mg²⁺]_i rise in control cells. In contrast, in TRPM7-depeleted cells (by siRNA), [Mg²⁺]_i did not change significantly when exposed to high extracellular Mg²⁺ levels. These findings suggest that TRPM7 facilitates transmembrane Mg²⁺ transport in VSMCs, probably by promoting Mg²⁺ influx through an ion channel mechanism.^32,50,51 [Mg²⁺]_i seems to be highly regulated, because [Mg²⁺]_i plateaued despite increasing concentrations of extracellular Mg²⁺ above 3 mmol/L. Possible reasons for this may relate first to the reciprocal interaction between intracellular Mg²⁺ and channel activity and second to the presence of regulatory Mg²⁺ efflux systems. There is now compelling evidence that intracellular Mg²⁺ negatively influences TRPM7 channel activity.^32,34 As [Mg²⁺]_i increases, TRPM7 activity declines. This inhibitory feedback loop between excess intracellular Mg²⁺ and channel activity may be important in maintaining [Mg²⁺]_i within a physiological range and in protecting cells against Mg²⁺ overload. It is also possible that as cellular Mg²⁺ levels increase, Mg²⁺ efflux systems, such as the Na⁺/Mg²⁺ exchanger, are activated.

Data from studies in cell lines demonstrate that TRPM7 has a unique permeation profile with a permeability sequence of Zn²⁺Ni²⁺>Ba²⁺>Co²⁺>Mg²⁺Mn²⁺Sr²⁺Cd²⁺Ca²⁺.³¹ Because Ca²⁺ plays a fundamental regulatory role in VSMC function, and because previous studies demonstrated that TRPM7 is a Ca²⁺-permeant ion channel,^52,53 we questioned whether TRPM7, in addition to regulating Mg²⁺ influx, influences transmembrane Ca²⁺ transport in VSMCs. Basal [Ca²⁺]_i was unaltered in TRPM7-deficient cells, indicating that this ion channel may not be important in ambient Ca²⁺ homeostasis in VSMCs. These findings are in contrast to neuronal-derived cells, where TRPM7 seems to be a major regulator of Ca²⁺ influx.^25,52 Ionomycin increased [Ca²⁺]_i in both control and TRPM7 knockdown cells. Although responses were slightly attenuated in TRPM7-deficient cells, these effects were not significantly different from control cells. Taken together, our data indicate that TRPM7 channel is a major regulator of VSMC Mg²⁺ homeostasis and that it may be less important in maintaining [Ca²⁺]_i. Our findings confirm others demonstrating that TRPM7 channels are ion selective and that sensitivity for Mg²⁺ is greater than that for Ca²⁺.^52,53

A major finding in our study relates to the temporal regulation of TRPM7 and [Mg²⁺]_i by Ang II. Short-term exposure of cells to Ang II resulted in a rapid [Mg²⁺]_i decrease, which was abrogated in Na⁺-free conditions. Responses were similar in control and TRPM7 knockdown cells. However, long-term Ang II exposure resulted in a significant [Mg²⁺]_i increase, which was not evident in TRPM7-deficient cells. These findings suggest that acute Ang II stimulation mediates transmembrane Mg²⁺ transport through Na⁺-dependent, TRPM7-independent pathways, whereas chronic stimulation leads to TRMP7-dependent Mg²⁺ influx. Putative mechanisms underlying these events could relate to initial activation of the Na⁺/Mg²⁺ exchanger by Ang II, resulting in Mg²⁺ efflux, as we previously reported,^18,44 followed by activation of TRPM7 leading to Mg²⁺ influx and increased [Mg²⁺]_i. (Figure 7). Upregulation of Ang II–stimulated TRPM7 may be due, in part, to increased TRPM7 content, as we demonstrated at the gene and protein levels. It is also possible that Ang II–induced [Mg²⁺]_i reduction stimulates TRPM7, because intracellular Mg²⁺ negatively influences TRPM7 channel activity.^32,34

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 7. Hypothetical scheme demonstrating the possible role of TRPM7 in Ang II regulation of VSMC [Mg2+]i. Short-term exposure to Ang II results in activation of the Na+/Mg2+ exchanger, leading to Mg2+ efflux, reduced [Mg2+]i and vasoconstriction (as we described1,4,19). Long-term stimulation induces upregulation of TRPM7, which facilitates Mg2+ influx and consequent increased [Mg2+]i. TRPM7 may also be activated by reduced intracellular Mg2+ levels. TRPM7-mediated [Mg2+]i increase may play a role in VSMC growth. PK indicates protein kinase; +, stimulatory effect.

At the functional level, we demonstrate that TRPM7 is important in Ang II–regulated growth of VSMCs. Incorporation of ³[H]-thymidine and ³[H]-leucine was significantly increased by Ang II in control but not in TRPM7 knockdown cells, indicating that Ang II–stimulated DNA and protein synthesis in VSMCs require functionally active TRPM7. These processes are mediated through AT₁ receptors, because valsartan inhibited Ang II–induced effects. Although previous studies suggested that TRPM7 is involved in cell growth,^20,54 our findings here are the first to demonstrate that TRPM7/Mg²⁺-dependent pathways play a role in Ang II–regulated growth of VSMCs.

In summary, using a combination of biochemical, pharmacological, and genetic tools, we provide evidence that VSMCs possess functionally active TRPM7 ion channels that play an important role in modulating VSMC Mg²⁺ homeostasis and growth. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Ang II regulates VSMC [Mg²⁺]_i in a temporal and biphasic fashion such that acute Ang II stimulation mediates Mg²⁺ efflux through the Na⁺/Mg²⁺ exchanger, whereas chronic stimulation induces Mg²⁺ influx through TRPM7-sensitive pathways. To our knowledge, these are the first data to identify a putative regulator of transmembrane Mg²⁺ transport in VSMCs. These findings contribute to the further understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in Mg²⁺ homeostasis in vascular cells and to the signaling mechanisms underlying Ang II–mediated growth of VSMCs.

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was supported by grant 57786 from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research and a grant from the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. R.M.T. is a scholar of the Fonds de la Recherché en Sante du Quebec.

	Footnotes

 
Original received August 24, 2004; revision received November 15, 2004; accepted December 1, 2004.

	References

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