© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Integrative Physiology |
Autoimmunity Against the Second Extracellular Loop of ß1-Adrenergic Receptors Induces ß-Adrenergic Receptor Desensitization and Myocardial Hypertrophy In Vivo
From the Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
Correspondence to Tsutomu Yoshikawa, MD, Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan 160-8582. E-mail tyoshi{at}mc.med.keio.ac.jp
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Although immunoapheresis removing autoantibodies against the second extracellular domain of ß1-adrenergic receptors (ARs) improves cardiac function in patients with cardiomyopathy, the underlying mechanisms have not been defined. We examined the role of autoimmunity against the domain in the development of cardiac dysfunction in vivo. Japanese white rabbits were immunized with a synthetic peptide corresponding to the second extracellular loop of ß1-AR once a month with (ß+biso rabbits, n=10) or without (ß rabbits, n=13) bisoprolol treatment (2 mg/kg per day). Control rabbits received vehicle without bisoprolol treatment (n=13). Autoantibodies of IgG isotype against the domain were persistently detected in ß and ß+biso rabbits. Purified IgG from sera of ß and ß+biso rabbits increased cAMP production in a rabbit cardiac membrane preparation, which was blocked by bisoprolol. At 3 months, ß-AR uncoupling with increased G protein–coupled receptor kinase 5 (GRK5) expression was found in ß rabbits. At 6 months, left ventricular hypertrophy was noted with hemodynamic derangements in ß rabbits. This was accompanied by decreased ß1-AR density and increased inhibitory G protein and GRK5 expression, which were related to marked decrease in membrane cAMP production. These changes in ß rabbits at 6 months were prevented in ß+biso rabbits. There was no difference in the plasma norepinephrine concentration in the 3 groups over the observation period. Thus, autoimmunity against the second extracellular loop of ß1-ARs induced profound ß-AR desensitization and myocardial hypertrophy in vivo, associated with cardiac dysfunction. Sustained sympathomimetic-like actions of autoantibodies against the domain may be partly responsible for these changes.
Key Words: autoimmunity • cardiomyopathy • ß-adrenergic receptor • hypertrophy • cardiac dysfunction
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Introduction |
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Certain forms of acquired cardiomyopathy are associated with autoimmunity as well as virus infection.1 Autoantibodies against the second extracellular domain of ß1-adrenergic receptors (ARs) are prevalent in patients with cardiomyopathy.2 3 4 Immunoapheresis removing these autoantibodies ameliorates their symptoms and hemodynamic abnormalities.5 This suggests that autoimmunity against the domain plays a role in the development of cardiac dysfunction in cardiomyopathy. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been defined.
Previous studies have shown that autoantibodies against the second extracellular domain of ß1-ARs exert sustained intrinsic sympathomimetic-like actions on cardiomyocytes in vitro.2 Because chronic stimulation of ß-ARs gives rise to alterations in cardiac ß-adrenergic signaling,6 7 8 myocardial hypertrophy,7 9 or damage,10 we speculated that autoimmunity might be responsible for such changes, leading to the development of cardiomyopathy and cardiac dysfunction. Actually, autoantibodies against the domain are found in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy as well as dilated cardiomyopathy.3 4 Although it is clear that ß-adrenergic signaling is altered in cardiomyopathy,11 12 13 relations to autoimmunity are not completely understood in vivo. Especially, G protein–coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are extremely important in modulating myocardial adrenergic signaling and cardiac function.8 13 14 Nevertheless, relationships between autoimmunity and GRKs have not been previously reported.
Beneficial effects of ß blockers on cardiac function have been confirmed in patients with cardiomyopathy.15 16 17 ß blockers might improve cardiac performance in patients with autoantibodies against the domain by preventing autoimmune-mediated myocardial damage. We sought to clarify the role played by autoimmunity against the second extracellular domain of ß1-ARs in the development of cardiac dysfunction in vivo, by immunizing rabbits with a peptide corresponding to the domain, together with treatment by bisoprolol, a selective ß1 antagonist.
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Materials and Methods |
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Immunization
Experiments were performed in 36 male Japanese white rabbits, which were 10 weeks old (1.80 to 2.20 kg). The experimental protocol was approved by our Institutional Review Board. A synthetic peptide corresponding to the second extracellular loop of rabbit ß1-AR (residues 197 to 222; HWWRAESDEARRCYNDPKCCDFVTNR) was produced by Peptide Institute, Inc. Twenty-six rabbits were randomly divided into 2 groups, and they were given distilled water throughout the observation period. Thirteen rabbits were immunized by subcutaneous injection of the peptide (1 mg) dissolved in 1 mL of saline conjugated with 0.5 mL of complete and incomplete Freund’s adjuvant once a month (ß rabbits). Thirteen control rabbits received saline containing adjuvant in the same manner. Ten additional rabbits that were immunized with peptide in the same manner were given oral bisoprolol (2 mg/kg per day) dissolved in distilled water (ß+biso rabbits). Three months after starting immunization, 5 rabbits in each group were euthanized (3M rabbits). The remaining rabbits were immunized over 6 months (6M rabbits). The mean plasma concentration of bisoprolol at 6 hours after oral administration in ß+biso rabbits was 9.1 ng/mL (2.4x10-8 mol/L), which corresponds approximately to the therapeutic plasma level.18
ELISA
Peptide (50 µL; 50 µg/mL in 0.1 mol/L
Na2CO3) was used to coat
individual wells of a 96-well microtiter plate. The wells were then
saturated with PBS supplemented with 3% skim milk, 0.1% Tween-20, and
0.01% merthiolate. Rabbit sera (50 µL) diluted 1:200 were added to
the coated plates and incubated overnight at 4°C. After 3 washes with
PBS, an affinity-purified biotinylated goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody
solution, diluted 1:1000 in merthiolate, was allowed to react for 1
hour at room temperature. After 3 washes, the bound biotinylated
antibodies were detected using streptavidin-peroxidase (1 µL/mL),
H2O2 (2.5 mmol/L) and
2,2'-azino-di-(ethylbenzthiazoline) sulfonic acid (2 mmol/L). After 30
minutes, the optical densities at 492 nm were determined using an ELISA
reader (Sanko Junyaku Co).
Ultrasonic Echocardiography
Echocardiography was performed with the rabbit under
anesthesia using 3 mg/kg thiopental sodium (Tanabe Seiyaku Co). The
parasternal long-axis views were obtained using a 7.5-MHz transducer
connected to a Hewlett-Packard Sonos 500 ultrasonic echocardiographic
system (model 77010CF), with the rabbit placed in the lateral decubitus
position.
Hemodynamic Measurements
At the end of each observation period, hemodynamic
measurements were performed in the open-chest condition under
anesthesia with chloral hydrate as described
previously,19 and finally,
the hearts were rapidly removed.
Histological Analysis
Excised hearts were fixed in 10% formalin and
embedded in paraffin, and both transverse and cross sections (3 µm
thickness) were obtained. Sections were stained with hematoxylin and
eosin and were subjected to light microscopic examinations. Planimetry
was performed macroscopically on cross sections of the hearts to
evaluate left ventricular (LV) muscle mass and cavity area and
microscopically on 100 cross-sectioned myocytes to determine
cross-sectional area per myocyte, using NIH
Image.
ß-AR Binding Studies
Membrane fractions were prepared using the LV
myocardium as described
previously.19 The densities
of myocardial ß-ARs were determined by a ligand binding assay with
[125I]iodocyanopindolol (ICYP) (Amersham
Biotech) using membrane samples as previously
described.19 Competition
binding experiments were performed in duplicate by incubating 50 pmol/L
ICYP with (-)isoproterenol using 16 different concentrations ranging
from 10-10 to
10-3 mol/L.
Nonspecific binding was determined using 1 µmol/L (-)propranolol.
The ratio of high- to low-affinity binding sites was determined using
nonlinear regression analysis with Prism (GraphPad Software, Inc).
Receptor–G protein coupling was assessed using 30 µmol/L
5'-guanylylimidodiphosphate (Gpp[NH]p). The
ß1/ß2 subpopulations
were determined by competitive binding experiments, which were
performed in duplicate by incubating 50 pmol/L ICYP with CGP27012A
(Novartis Pharma), a selective ß1 antagonist
using 16 different concentrations ranging from
10-10 to
10-3 mol/L. The
percentage of ß1-ARs was calculated from the
high-affinity binding subpopulation.
cAMP Measurements
cAMP production was determined using cardiac membrane
preparations under basal conditions and after addition of
10-5 mol/L
isoproterenol+10-5
mol/L GTP or of
10-5 mol/L
Gpp(NH)p, as previously
described.19
Concentration-response relationships for isoproterenol were examined at
concentrations ranging from
10-7 to
10-4
mol/L.
Immunoblotting
Immunodetection of stimulatory (Gs) and inhibitory
(Gi) G-protein levels in the membrane fraction, as well as of GRK2 and
GRK5 protein levels in both the membrane and cytosolic fractions, was
performed using standard SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting techniques, as
previously described.20
Protein from each fraction (50 µg) was electrophoresed and then
immunoblotted. Fixed samples were included on each gel as standard for
quantification of the densities of each blot. Antisera against Gs
(Upstate Biotechnology, Inc) and Gi, GRK2, and GRK5 (Santa Cruz
Biotechnology) were used as primary antibodies, and horseradish
peroxidase–linked anti-rabbit IgG (Boehringer Mannheim) was used as a
secondary antibody to detect individual protein levels. The densities
of each blot were quantified by densitometric scanning and standardized
by defining the mean density of membrane fraction from control rabbits
at 6 months as 1.0 densitometric unit. The specificities of antibody
binding for each antigen were confirmed by neutralization assays using
blocking peptides.
Functional Assay With Purified IgG From
Sera of Rabbits
After hemodynamic measurements, IgG fractions were
isolated from sera of rabbits with an Affi-Gel Protein A Monoclonal
Antibody Purification System II Kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories) according to
the protocol and desalted over a Bio-Gel P-6DG desalting gel (Bio-Rad
Laboratories) to be eluted with PBS (pH 7.4). A cardiac membrane
preparation from a control rabbit was incubated in the presence or
absence of bisoprolol with purified IgG or with PBS (30°C, 30
minutes), followed by incubation in the presence of
10-5 mol/L GTP
with isoproterenol or with buffer alone (30°C, 10 minutes) to
determine cAMP production.
Statistics
Data are expressed as mean±SEM. Comparisons between
3 groups were performed by 1-way ANOVA accompanied by a Bonferroni post
hoc test when appropriate. Changes in optical densities on ELISA and
isoproterenol concentration–dependent data on cAMP production in
cardiac membrane preparations from 3 groups were analyzed using a
repeated-measures ANOVA, whereas differences in mean values between the
groups at a specific dose were determined by 1-way ANOVA. Statistical
significance was defined as
P<0.05.
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Results |
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IgG isotype autoantibodies against the second extracellular loop of ß1-ARs were persistently detected by ELISA, as early as 1 month after starting immunization, in both ß and ß+biso rabbits, but not in the control rabbits (Figure 1A
). Purified IgG (100 µg/mL) from ß and ß+biso
rabbits increased cAMP production in cardiac membrane preparations in
the absence of either bisoprolol
(10-7 mol/L) or
isoproterenol
(10-6 mol/L),
whereas IgG from control rabbits did not have a significant effect. In
contrast, isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production was partly inhibited
by the IgG from ß or ß+biso rabbits. In the presence of bisoprolol,
the stimulatory effects of the IgG from ß and ß+biso rabbits, as
well as those of isoproterenol, were abolished
(Figure 1B). Moreover, we examined the concentration-response
relationships on cAMP production for the purified IgG and isoproterenol
and the effects of bisoprolol on these parameters. IgG from ß and
ß+biso rabbits increased cAMP production in a concentration-dependent
manner, whereas the maximum responses were lower than those of
isoproterenol
(Figure 1C-1). On the other hand, IgG from ß and ß+biso
rabbits inhibited isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production in a
concentration-dependent manner
(Figure 1C-2). These results demonstrate that autoantibodies
from ß and ß+biso rabbits act as partial agonists for
ß1-ARs, competing with the full agonist
isoproterenol. In the presence of bisoprolol, basal cAMP production in
the absence of either the IgG or isoproterenol was lower than that in
the absence of bisoprolol
(Figures 1C-1 and 1C-2), showing that bisoprolol acts as an
inverse agonist.21
Concentration-response curves in the presence of bisoprolol revealed
that the stimulatory effects of IgG from ß and ß+biso rabbits were
reversed
(Figure 1C-1), whereas the effects of isoproterenol were
partially blocked by bisoprolol
(Figure 1C-2).
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Data on cardiac function are summarized in
Table 1. At 3 months, there was no difference in any of the
parameters measured among the 3 groups. At 6 months, thickening of both
the interventricular septum and the posterior wall was noted with a
decrease in the LV end-diastolic dimension in ß rabbits compared with
control rabbits on echocardiography
(Table 1 and
Figure 2A). Hemodynamic data demonstrated an elevation in LV
end-diastolic pressure and a decrease in peak negative dp/dt and
cardiac output in ß rabbits. There was an increase in LV weight in
ß rabbits at 6 months
(Table 1). Macroscopic examination of the hearts revealed LV
hypertrophy, as evidenced by an increase in LV muscle mass, and a
decrease in the cavity area
(Figure 2B). LV muscle mass corrected by the total
cross-sectional area was increased in ß rabbits. These macroscopic
findings were endorsed by microscopic planimetry showing an increase in
cross-sectional area per myocyte in ß rabbits
(Table 1).
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Histological findings at 3 months included mononuclear cell
infiltrates in 3 rabbits each from the ß and ß+biso groups, but not
in rabbits from the control group
(Figure 3A). At 6 months, although cellular infiltrates in
the hearts subsided, myocardial hypertrophy with large nuclei, severe
disorganizations of the myofibers, and interstitial fibrosis were
present in the LV myocardium from ß rabbits. ß+biso rabbits
demonstrated this histopathology to a lesser extent
(Figure 3B).
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There was no difference in plasma and LV norepinephrine
concentrations among the 3 groups at either 3 or 6 months
(Table 2). At 3 months, the maximal binding sites of
total ß-ARs were similar in the 3 groups, whereas the percentages of
high-affinity binding sites were remarkably decreased in ß rabbits.
At 6 months, total ß-ARs tended to decrease, primarily as a function
of diminished ß1 receptor density in ß
rabbits. The percentage of high-affinity binding sites was also
decreased
(Table 2). Isoproterenol-competition curves revealed a loss
of guanine nucleotide modulatable binding in ß rabbits
(Figure 4A). With regard to cAMP production, at 3
months, although there was no difference in the basal and
Gpp(NH)p-stimulated production in the 3 groups, the
isoproterenol-stimulated production was decreased in ß rabbits. At 6
months, the basal and Gpp(NH)p-stimulated, as well as
isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production, was decreased in ß rabbits
(Table 2). Moreover, the concentration-response curves of
isoproterenol revealed that the maximal cAMP production was decreased
in ß rabbits at both 3 and 6 months
(Figure 4B). These ß-AR signaling abnormalities in ß
rabbits were prevented in ß+biso rabbits.
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P<0.05 vs control and ß+biso, 
P<0.01 vs control and ß+biso, **P<0.001 vs control and P<0.01 vs ß+biso (Bonferroni post hoc test). Data are mean±SEM for each group.
As assessed by immunoblots, at 3 months, there was no
difference in protein levels of Gs, Gi, or GRK2 in the 3 groups,
whereas GRK5 protein levels were increased in the membrane fraction
from ß rabbits. At 6 months, Gi protein levels as well as GRK5
protein levels were increased in the membrane fraction from ß
rabbits. GRK2 tended to increase in the membrane fraction from ß
rabbits, although there was no statistical significance. The above
findings at 3 and 6 months in ß rabbits were prevented in ß+biso
rabbits
(Figures 5 and 6).
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Discussion |
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The present study provides 3 new major findings. First, autoimmunity against the second extracellular loop of ß1-ARs induced early myocardial ß-AR uncoupling with increased GRK5 expression. Profound desensitization with increased Gi protein expression ensued. Second, the autoimmune process induced cardiac hypertrophy. Third, these changes were prevented by a ß1-selective antagonist bisoprolol, which has an inverse agonist activity.
Cardiomyopathic Changes Induced by
Autoimmunity
By immunizing rabbits with a synthetic peptide
corresponding to the second extracellular loop of
ß1-AR, we observed sequential changes in the
hearts. As early as 1 month after starting immunization, autoantibodies
against the second extracellular loop of
ß1-ARs were persistently detected in both ß
and ß+biso rabbits. These autoantibodies exert agonist-like actions
on ß1-ARs. At 3 months, mononuclear cell
infiltrates were noted in both ß and ß+biso rabbits, whereas ß-AR
uncoupling with increased GRK5 expression was observed only in the ß
rabbits. These findings suggest that cellular inflammation with
infiltrates does not account for ß-AR uncoupling and may be a
nonspecific immune reaction. Whereas cellular infiltration in the
hearts subsided at 6 months, LV hypertrophy with altered cardiac
function occurred in the ß rabbits. Profound ß-AR desensitization
was noted in the ß rabbits and was accompanied by decreased
ß1-AR density and increased Gi protein as well
as GRK5 expression, although there was no difference in the plasma
norepinephrine concentration in the 3 groups. These results suggest
that sustained sympathomimetic actions of the autoantibodies may at
least partly account for ß-AR signaling abnormalities and myocardial
hypertrophy, because isoproterenol increases
GRK8 and
Gi6 expression, and
induces cardiomyocyte
hypertrophy.7 9
Matsui et al22 have demonstrated autoimmune-mediated cardiomyopathy by immunizing rabbits for up to 12 months with the peptide. Biventricular dilation occurred with upregulation of ß-AR in immunized rabbits, which differs from the findings of the present study. Differences in the immunization period as well as in adjuvant composition or species differences may account for the inconsistent results. Preliminary results from our laboratory have revealed that cavity dilation is not observed in rabbits immunized for up to 12 months. In addition, at 12 months, LV hypertrophy is no longer present and total ß-AR density was significantly decreased in ß rabbits in association with increased plasma norepinephrine concentrations. It is possible that such phenomena may represent an early stage of dilated cardiomyopathy. The different results in the ß-AR assay could be attributable to differential enrichment of cell membranes due to the filtration methods used in preparation.
Alterations in ß-Adrenergic Signaling
Associated With Autoimmunity
Previous experiments in vitro have shown that
incubation of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes with autoantibodies
against ß1-ARs decreases
ß1-AR protein and mRNA
expression.23 This is
consistent with the present findings at 6 months, although this finding
was preceded by an increase in the GRK5 protein. GRKs have a key role
in modulating myocardial adrenergic signaling and cardiac
function.8 13 14
GRK5 and GRK2 are enzymes normally expressed in the heart that are
rapidly activated after agonist occupancy of receptors. These kinases
phosphorylate the receptors, resulting in receptor–G protein
uncoupling. Iaccarino et al8
showed that ß-AR stimulation with isoproterenol increases expression
of GRK2 but not GRK5 in mice. One previous study also showed increased
GRK2 but not GRK5 expression in failing rabbit heart after myocardial
infarction,24 whereas
another study demonstrated increased GRK5 but not GRK2 expression in a
porcine pacing-induced model of heart failure, suggesting that
increased GRK5 expression may be one of the earliest changes in heart
failure.25 Ping et
al26 reported that although
chronic inhibition of ß1-AR activation by
bisoprolol resulted in downregulation of GRK activity in porcine heart,
no change in immunodetectable GRK2 was found, suggesting that reduced
GRK5 expression might be responsible for the decreased GRK activity.
Thus, it seems possible that selective stimulation of
ß1-ARs by the autoantibodies is partly
responsible for the predominant expression of GRK5 in the present
study. According to the previous
study,8 GRK2 expression may
also increase as the plasma norepinephrine concentration increases in
the present model. Actually, GRK2 tended to increase in the membrane
fraction from ß rabbits at 6 months. Choi et
al14 reported that although
pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy is associated with increased GRK
activity, sympathoadrenal activation but not cellular hypertrophy is
responsible for the increased GRK activity, which is consistent with
our findings at 3 months.
Although relationships between ß-AR
stimulation6 or heart
failure11 23 27
and Gi have been reported, those between autoimmunity and Gi
expression have not previously. In the present study, increased Gi
protein, coupled with decreased ß1-AR density
or increased GRK5, was responsible for the profound decrease in cAMP
production related to altered cardiac function at 6 months. According
to a previous report,28
increased Gi protein, unlike GRK5, may be related to myocardial
hypertrophy, although this issue was not clarified in the present
study.
Study Limitation and Clinical
Implications
We checked cross-reaction of autoantibodies with other
cardiac proteins in Western blots using rabbit cardiac ventricular
homogenates to confirm the specificity of autoimmunity against
ß1-ARs. We could not detect ß-ARs clearly,
possibly because of their low expression. Therefore, we immunized
rabbits together with bisoprolol treatment to confirm that the partial
agonist autoantibodies were effecting cardiac toxicity via
ß1-ARs. Cardiomyopathic changes induced by
autoimmunity in the present study may involve various factors,
including humoral and cellular immunity, and neurohumoral factors such
as catecholamines or cytokines. Because there are complex
interrelationships among them, it is difficult to specify the exact
cause of an individual change. We observed 2 time points for sequential
changes in the hearts in addition to bisoprolol treatment and attempted
to identify the mechanisms of cardiomyopathic changes seen in the
present study.
Bisoprolol prevented ß-AR desensitization and myocardial hypertrophy induced by autoimmunity in the present study. Bisoprolol appears to eliminate toxicity from the partial agonist autoantibodies, rather than toxicity from elevated plasma levels of norepinephrine, because there was no difference in plasma norepinephrine concentration in the 3 groups over the observation period. Based on the fact that the second extracellular domain of ß-ARs, although not the normal ligand binding site, includes disulfide-bonded cysteine residues and plays an role in ligand affinity regulation and receptor activation,29 it is speculated that autoantibody binding to the domain may induce the conformational change of the receptor to an active state.2 On the other hand, although the binding site of ligands such as ß-adrenergic antagonists resides within the hydrophobic transmembrane domains of the receptor,29 functional assays demonstrated that bisoprolol has an inverse agonist activity, which is the agonist-independent modulation of receptor activity inducing an inactive conformation with loss of the active state.21 This suggests that the 2-state model of G protein–coupled receptor activation21 could explain our results and that inverse agonism rather than direct interaction with autoantibodies may be responsible for the protective effects of bisoprolol in the present study. General hemodynamic effects of ß blockers appear insufficient to account for the protective effects of bisoprolol in the present study because the effects on ß-adrenergic signaling have been apparent at 3 months when there is no difference in any of the hemodynamic parameters among the 3 groups. The elimination of agonist-like actions of the autoantibodies by bisoprolol may also prevent myocardial expression of proinflammatory cytokines induced by chronic ß-adrenergic stimulation, which are believed to have key roles in the pathophysiology of congestive heart failure,30 although there is no evidence to support this hypothesis in the present study.
The present results suggest a possible mechanism by which the removal of the autoantibodies through immunoglobulin adsorption improves cardiac performance in patients with cardiomyopathy.5 In this regard, ß blockers, especially with inverse agonism, as well as immunoglobulin adsorption, could be rational therapeutic tools for patients with cardiomyopathy who have autoantibodies directed against the second extracellular domain of ß1-ARs.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by Grants 09670748 (to T.Y.) and 12770356 (to M.I.) from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan, and by funds from the Idiopathic Cardiomyopathy Research Group of the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan. We thank Yukio Shimoguchi for technical assistance in histological analysis.
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Footnotes |
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Original received September 29, 2000; revision received February 1, 2001; accepted February 1, 2001.
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