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© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Integrative Physiology |
Endotoxemia in Transgenic Mice Overexpressing Human Glutathione Peroxidases
From the Department of Biochemistry (O.M., O.P., U.P., I.K., M.I.), Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, and Meakins-Christie Laboratories (W.S.P.), Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Correspondence to Oleg Mirochnitchenko, Department of Biochemistry, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 675 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854. E-mail mirochol{at}rwja.umdnj.edu
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Abstract |
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Abstract—In response to endotoxemia induced by administration of lipopolysaccharide, a complex series of reactions occurs in mammalian tissues. During this inflammation response, cells produce different mediators, such as reactive oxygen species, a number of arachidonic acid metabolites, and cytokines. The reactive oxygen species thus generated have been suggested to produce tissue injury as a result of macromolecular damage or by interfering with regulatory processes. They may also act as important signaling molecules to induce redox-sensitive genes. We report here that transgenic mice overexpressing 2 major forms of human glutathione peroxidases (GPs), intra- and extracellular GP, are able to modulate host response during endotoxemic conditions. We show that these animals have a decreased hypotension and increased survival rate after administration of a high dosage of lipopolysaccharide. Overexpression of GPs alters vascular permeability and production of cytokines (interleukin-1ß and tumor necrosis factor-
) and NO, affects
arachidonic acid metabolism, and inhibits
leukocyte migration. These results suggest an important role for
peroxides in pathogenesis during endotoxemia, and GPs, by regulating
their level, may prove to be good candidates for antioxidant therapy to
protect against such injury.
Key Words: endotoxemia • oxidative stress • glutathione peroxidase
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Introduction |
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Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are important mediators of multiple organ failure resulting from severe infection or sepsis caused by Gram-negative bacteria.1 Their release during infection induces a number of pathophysiological reactions leading to cardiovascular failure and damage to numerous organs.2 There is experimental evidence that suggests oxidative damage in pathogenesis of endotoxemia.3 To evaluate the role of glutathione peroxidase (GP) in protection against endotoxemia in vivo, we have used transgenic mice overexpressing human extracellular (GPxP) and intracellular (GPx1) GP. In the present study, we report that these animals show an increased rate of survival after administration of a large dosage of LPS. Mice with human GPs are able to modulate levels of lipid peroxidation and inflammatory mediators. These transgenic animals represent a new model system for investigation of the role of GPs and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endotoxemia and other inflammatory disorders.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Animals and Treatments
Heterozygous transgenic mice 5 to 6 months old in a C57BL/6xCBA/J background overexpressing human GPxP (strain 17) and human GPx1 (strain 23) and their normal littermates were bred in our facility. We described the generation of these mice previously.4 For survival studies, the mice were injected with LPS at a dose of 25 mg/kg (Escherichia coli serotype 0111:B4; Sigma). Arterial blood pressure and heart rate were measured using the Kent tail blood pressure system. For characterization of cytokine production and leukocyte distribution, blood was collected from the retro-orbital cavity of a group of animals dosed with LPS (16 mg/kg of body weight). Plasma was analyzed for cytokine (tumor necrosis factor-
[TNF-] and interleukin-1ß [IL-1ß]) production with
ELISA kits from R&D Systems. Vascular permeability was determined by
assessing tissue accrual of Evan’s Blue, as described
previously.5 Sixteen hours after PBS or LPS
injection, the animals were administered 25 mg/kg Evan’s Blue by tail
vein injection, and after 10 minutes the organs were harvested. Dye
content was calculated by standard curves and referred to the dry
weight of the tissue. For bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), the animals
were anesthetized and PBS (pH 7.0) was injected via
catheter.
Hematology
Blood cells were analyzed on an EPICS Profile flow
cytometer (Coulter Electronics, Inc). Leukocyte differentials were
gated using forward light scatter and side scatter.
Myeloperoxidase (MPO) Assay
The lung extracts were assayed for MPO activity by a
spectrophotometric assay according to the method of Goldblum et
al.6
Measurement of Lipid Peroxides (LPOs) and GP
Activity
LPOs were measured using LPO-586 colorimetric
assay kit (R&D Systems). GP activity was measured by a coupled enzyme
assay.4
Lactate Dehydrogenase and Nitrite/Nitrate Assay
Plasma and BAL nitrite/nitrate levels were measured in normal
and transgenic mice after LPS administration using the R&D Systems
NO2–/NO3–
assay kit.
Inducible NO Synthase (iNOS) Assay and Western Blot
Analysis
iNOS activity was measured in cellular homogenates
using an NO synthase assay kit based on conversion of
[3H]arginine to citrulline (Calbiochem)
according to the manufacturer’s protocol. For protein detection,
aliquots of the whole cellular extracts containing 5 µg of protein
each were denatured and separated on 7.5% polyacrylamide
minigels. After transfer to nitrocellulose membrane, iNOS protein was
detected using rabbit anti-mouse iNOS antibodies (sc-650, Santa Cruz
Biotechnology) and the Phototope-HRP Western blot detection kit
(BioLabs).
Isolation of Intraperitoneal
Macrophages, Blood Neutrophils, and Platelets
Intraperitoneal macrophages were
isolated as described earlier.7 Platelets were
purified from mouse blood obtained by cardiac puncture, as described by
Hill et al.8 Mouse blood neutrophils were purified by
using neutrophil isolation medium (NIM-2) density gradient
medium (Cardinal Associates Inc).
Measurement of Neutrophil Adhesion In Vitro
Neutrophil adhesion was measured according to Vasselon et
al9 within 24-well plates precoated with laminin and
fibronectin (Becton Dickinson). The percentage of cells remaining
adherent after 30 minutes of incubation was evaluated using the CyQUANT
assay kit (Molecular Probes, Inc).
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and
12-HETE Production in Blood Plasma During Endotoxemia
Eicosanoids were extracted from blood plasma by Sep-Pak C-18
cartridge10 and measured using ELISA kits (Amersham and
PerSeptive Biosystems).
Analysis of Eicosanoids Produced by Platelets Using
Precolumn Extraction/Reversed-Phase HPLC
Platelets (5x108) from normal and
transgenic mice were incubated for 20 minutes in 1 mL of Tyrode-HEPES
buffer in the presence of 50 mmol/L and 10 nmol/L of unlabeled and
14C-labeled arachidonic acid (57
mCi/mmol), respectively, at 37°C. The reaction was stopped by adding
1 mL of cold methanol. Eicosanoids were quantified by precolumn
extraction/reversed-phase HPLC.11
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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GP Activity in Leukocytes and Platelets
We have previously reported the levels of GP activity in tissues and blood plasma of both the transgenic mouse strains used in our experiments.4 12 In GPx1 mice, GP activities were higher in brain, muscle, liver, kidney, and lung than in the corresponding tissues of nontransgenic animals. In GPxP mice, increase of activity was observed only in blood plasma and kidney, which correlates with normal distribution of this enzyme activity in mice. Because leukocytes as well as platelets are active participants in the inflammatory response during endotoxemia, we also measured activity of GP in these cells. No statistically significant difference was observed in GP activity in neutrophils among Gpx1, GPxP, and nontransgenic mice, whereas peritoneal macrophage level of GP was 35% higher in GPxP and 38% higher in GPx1 animals as compared with that in normal mice (1123.5±108.7, 1143.5±67.0, and 830.0±62.1 mU/mg, respectively). Similar data were obtained by using purified blood monocytes. Interestingly, in platelets, increase of activity was even higher, 62% in GPx1 and 49% in GPxP in comparison with normal animals (62.25±2.6, 59.8±7.1, and 39.92±4.1 mU/mg, respectively).
LPS-Induced Lethality and Blood Pressure in Nontransgenic and
Transgenic Mice With Human GPs
Lethal endotoxic shock was induced in mice by administering LPS at
a dosage of 25 mg/kg. More than 40% of GPxP mice and 70% of GPx1 mice
survived, whereas only 20% of nontransgenic animals survived in the
experiment with GPxP mice and 30% survived in the experiment with GPx1
mice (Figures 1A
and 1B). Because the
strains of transgenic mice with different transgenes show similar
phenotypes, these data indicate that overexpression of GPs
leads to the attenuation of death and better survival of mice at a high
dosage of LPS. Histopathological analysis of liver, lung,
heart, and kidney sections at 12 and 18 hours after LPS injection as
well as necropsies of dead animals indicate only mild histopathological
alterations in all groups, which cannot be associated with morbidity
and mortality in these animals.
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2 test; PRISM 2.0 software, GraphPad Software, Inc).
Mean arterial blood pressure was measured in conscious mice
using the Kent tail blood pressure system (C). Measurements in
nontransgenic mice are shown up to 17 hours; after this time point, a
significant number of these animals died. At least 6 mice were tested
per experimental group. Values are mean±SD. P<0.05 vs
nontransgenic mice.
Several lines of evidence suggest that hypotension,
cardiorepression, and vascular hyporeactivity that accompany
endotoxemia in patients and experimental animals might result in organ
hypoperfusion and potential circulatory collapse leading to high
mortality.13 We measured mean arterial blood
pressure in the conscious transgenic and normal mice before and after
administration of LPS. Results indicate that LPS injection caused a
progressive fall in blood pressure (Figure 1C
). In a group of
normal mice after 15 to 16 hours, this led to a very low level of blood
pressure (40±3.8 mm Hg) followed by death of most of the
animals. In contrast, blood pressure of GPx1 and GPxP mice showed signs
of stabilization at this time point, with level of blood pressure
60 mm Hg. The next decline of blood pressure in the GP
transgenic mice was observed after 40 hours (data not shown), which is
in good correlation with survival curves. No differences in alteration
of heart rate during endotoxemia were observed between the groups.
Effect of Endotoxemia on GP Activity
To evaluate the effect of LPS administration on GP activity
in different organs and cells of normal and transgenic mice, heart,
kidney, lung, liver, platelets, and macrophages were
isolated from animals at 8 and 18 hours after LPS administration (25
mg/kg). Measurements indicate that there was no change in the GP
activity in heart, kidney, liver, and platelets from normal and
transgenic mice at these time points. At 18 hours, a slight increase of
GP activity (30%) was observed in the lungs of normal mice (92±11
mU/mg before and 130±12 mU/mg after LPS administration;
P<0.05). A moderate decrease of GP activity in lung was
observed in GPxP and GPx1 mice (118±21 and 128±15 mU/mg before and
105±9 and 96±6 [P<0.05] mU/mg after LPS
administration, respectively). In macrophages, GP activity
dropped at 18 hours in all animal groups to 50% to 60%, although it
was still 43% and 34% higher in GPx1 and GPxP mice than in normal
animals, respectively (682±109 [P<0.05], 582±29
[P<0.05], and 388±52 mU/mg).
These data indicate that overall GP activity in most of the organs was not affected by this dosage of LPS and are in agreement with data on GP measurements in several organs by Yoshikawa et al.14 Changes in GP activity in lungs of normal animals probably reflect compensatory increase of the enzymatic activity in this group of animals, which undergo higher stress during endotoxemia as compared with transgenic mice.
Effect of GP Overexpression on NO Production During
Endotoxemia and Vascular Permeability
Massive release of NO during endotoxemia was shown to contribute
to different cardiovascular abnormalities, including
hypotension and lowered peripheral
resistance.15 Administration of LPS to normal and
transgenic mice led to a sharp increase of nitrite/nitrate in the
plasma (Figure 2A). Importantly, the
levels of nitrite/nitrate at 8 and 16 hours were 30% to 40% less in
both GPx1 and GPxP mice. We also measured the level of nitrite/nitrate
in BAL, in which formation of NO is thought to be involved in
development of acute lung injury during endotoxemia and
sepsis.16 The level of induction of nitrite/nitrate in BAL
at 8 hours was 2-fold less in transgenic mice; however, at 16 hours it
remained at a lower level only in the GPxP mice (Figure 2B).
Because iNOS induction is primarily responsible for the
production of large amounts of NO during endotoxemia, iNOS
activity was measured in normal and transgenic mice before and after
LPS administration. Data shown in Figure 2C indicate
significantly higher iNOS activity in macrophages from normal
mice in comparison with GPx1 and GPxP mice. These measurements
correlate with increased amounts of iNOS protein detected by Western
blotting in the same cells (Figure 3).
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Hypotension has also been attributed to a direct action of LPS on endothelial cells leading to an increase in vascular permeability. Vascular permeability, evaluated by the Evan’s Blue dye extravasation method, shows a significant increase in all tested organs of normal mice (35.15±12.3 and 319.8±48 µg in kidney, 29.12±11.3 and 251.5±35.5 µg in lung, 15.6±2.8 and 206.7±43 µg in liver, and 8.7±2.1 and 12±5.6 µg in heart of Evan’s Blue per gram dry tissue after PBS or LPS administration, respectively; n=4), whereas in GP transgenic mice, much lower dye extravasation in kidney, liver, and lung, but not heart, was observed. For example, measurements of Evan’s Blue dye in those tissues from GPx1 mice after LPS administration were as follows: 96.8±29.1 µg in kidney, 58.2±18.3 µg in liver, and 54.3±15.3 µg in lung (P<0.05 versus nontransgenic mice) and 15.2±6 µg in heart of Evan’s Blue per gram dry tissue (n=4; Evan’s Blue extravasation in GPs and normal mice was similar after injection of PBS). Similar data were obtained for GPxP mice. These results indicate a dramatic improvement of vascular integrity during endotoxemia by GP overexpression.
Overexpression of GPs Leads to the Modulation of the Level of Lipid
Peroxidation During Endotoxemia
Levels of LPOs during LPS-induced endotoxemia were measured in the
liver, kidney, and blood of nontransgenic, GPx1, and GPxP mice. The
presence of both of the human enzymes decreases the level of lipid
peroxidation in tissues of tested organs only at 4 hours after LPS
administration (Figures 4A and 4B). No
difference was observed in LPOs between nontransgenic and GP mice in
blood plasma (Figure 4C). These data indicate that the
antioxidant effect of GP overexpression occurs very early during the
inflammatory response to LPS administration.
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Induction of the TNF- and IL-1ß in GP Transgenic Mice
Cytokine production is an important early response
of an organism to endotoxemia. We have measured levels of TNF- and
IL-1ß in nontransgenic, GPx1, and GPxP mice under endotoxemic
conditions. Administration of LPS causes a sharp increase of TNF-
production in all groups of mice, with a peak at 90 minutes
after injection (Figure 5A).
Surprisingly, the level of TNF- induction was 3 times higher in GPx1
mice and 80% higher in GPxP mice than in nontransgenic animals. After
6 hours, the level of this cytokine returns to normal in all of
the mice. The quantity of IL-1ß in blood, in contrast to TNF-, at
3 hours was 25% and 80% higher in nontransgenic mice than in GPx1 and
GPxP, respectively (Figure 5B). Similar differences were
observed at 6 hours after LPS administration as well. These data
indicate that GP overexpression differentially influences
cytokine production.
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Leukocyte Migration Under Endotoxic Conditions Is Inhibited in GP
Transgenic Mice
Because leukocyte recruitment is an important feature of severe
endotoxemia, we determined blood leukocyte differentials of transgenic
animals after LPS administration. After a sharp decline of circulating
neutrophil counts in all groups of animals, significantly higher levels
of these leukocytes were observed in transgenic mice after 6 hours
(Figure 6A). These data correlate with
MPO activities (Figure 6D). Monocytopenia was detected in GPx1
and nontransgenic mice at 2 hours, which then gradually changed to an
elevated level in the former (Figure 6B). In GPxP mice, a 4-time
increase in comparison with nontransgenic mice was seen at 2 hours,
whereas at 24 hours it decreased to a similar level. Severe absolute
lymphopenia was observed in all groups of mice (Figure 6C),
although at 24 hours, the level of lymphocytes was higher in GP mice.
These data suggest that the level of GP activity, both intracellular
and extracellular, modulates recruitment of leukocytes.
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The basic adhesion properties of neutrophils from transgenic and nontransgenic mice were similar (tested by binding to laminin- and fibronectin-coated plates). By Northern blot analysis, we also demonstrated that the expression of at least 1 receptor molecule, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, which mediates extravagation of leukocytes in an inflammatory tissue, was equal in all of the tested animal groups (not shown). Therefore, differences observed in leukocyte behavior were probably due to the level of their activation in vivo.
GP Overexpression Decreased Production of Several Important
Eicosanoid Metabolites in the Blood of Animals During Endotoxemia as
Well as in Purified Activated Platelets
Along with ROS, eicosanoids belong to the group of proinflammatory
agents that cause systemic hypotension and attract, activate,
and promote adherence of neutrophils. For example,
LTB4 and 12-HETE stimulate neutrophil
chemokinesis, chemotactic aggregation, adherence, and potential
inflammatory reactions, attracting neutrophils to the place of their
involvement.17 18 Because GP is known to influence
cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase
activity,19 20 we have measured LTB4
and 12-HETE in plasma of animals after LPS administration. At the
6-hour time point, an almost 30% decrease in
LTB4 production was observed in GP mice
in comparison with nontransgenic mice (Figure 7A). The level of 12-HETE was 1.6 to
2.1 times lower in plasma of GPx1 and GPxP mice in comparison with the
nontransgenic animals at the 6-hour time point (Figure 7B).
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Along with leukocyte 12-LPO, platelet-type 12-LPO is a major source
of 12-HETE. To test the hypothesis that platelets, because of the
different level of GP, were able to decrease 12-HETE production
in transgenic mice, we purified these cells and measured the release of
arachidonic acid metabolites. Two major products
were detected (12-HETE and 12(S)-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid
[12-HHTrE]). The level of production of these
eicosanoids was inhibited in platelets of GP mice by 50% and 40%
for 12-HETE and 12-HHTrE, respectively (Figures 8A and 8B). These data correlate with
similar levels of GP overexpression in platelets from both types of
transgenic mice. 12-HHTrE is one of the major products of the
cyclooxygenase-thromboxane synthase
pathway in activated platelets. It is formed along with
thromboxane A2, a very potent
aggregatory agent.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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It has become apparent that ROS may be important mediators of cellular injury during endotoxemia either as a result of macromolecular damage or by interfering with extracellular and intracellular regulatory processes. Studies presented here show that transgenic mice overexpressing GPs exhibit decreased sensitivity to endotoxic shock induced by a large dosage of LPS. Our data indicate that this effect correlates with significantly higher blood pressure and vascular permeability in these animals in comparison with nontransgenic mice, which suggests reduced circulatory failure by GP overexpression. The role of GPx1 in another model of inflammatory injury was also emphasized by Jaeschke et al,21 who observed increased sensitivity of GPx1 knockout animals to hepatocellular toxicity, induced by galactosamine/endotoxin administration.
Measurements of the inflammatory mediators, which are thought to play a
critical role in the pathological response during endotoxic shock in
normal and transgenic mice, provides several potential mechanisms to
explain the influence of GP overexpression on animal survival. We
observed an inhibitory effect of GP on the increase of
vascular permeability and level of NO in blood and BAL of animals after
LPS injection, which are essential for the development of LPS-induced
hypotension. There is conflicting evidence as to whether inhibiting NO
synthase leads to lower mortality in animals given endotoxin. Several
reports indicate reduced mortality as well as an increase in survival
time.22 23 In rodents, iNOS expression during endotoxemia
occurs mainly in macrophages, in which both types of transgenic
mice have an increased level of GP expression. Our data indicate that
decreased NO production in these cells was mediated by
inhibition of iNOS activation. In principle, GPs may have interfered
with activation of transcription factors mediating the induction of
iNOS mRNA, such as nuclear factor 
B, as it was demonstrated by us as
well as others.24 25 In addition, Kuo et al26
have recently reported the identification of a functional
redox-sensitive antioxidant-responsive element in the iNOS
promoter region. Alternatively, GPs can inhibit upstream signal
transduction pathways leading to the activation of iNOS. Along with NO,
leukotrienes were shown to be responsible for hypotension
and cardiopulmonary dysfunction.27 We have
demonstrated that GP overexpression decreases production of
several LPO metabolites in our in vivo model as well as inhibits LPO
and cyclooxygenase pathways in platelets.
Leukotrienes and NO are mediators of endotoxin-induced
increases in microvascular permeability and leukocyte migration. We
have reported in this study that in transgenic mice overexpressing GP,
recruitment of neutrophils, monocytes, and even lymphocytes is
inhibited under endotoxemic conditions.
In addition to its cytotoxic effects, LPS stimulates the release of a
variety of cytokines that are implicated in its
pathophysiology. Our data indicate that after LPS administration,
significantly higher quantities of TNF- and lower quantities of
IL-1ß are released in the blood of transgenic mice compared with
quantities in nontransgenic animals. The effect of GPs on the level of
TNF- is most likely mediated by modulation of the level of
arachidonic acid metabolites, especially HPETEs, which
are efficient inhibitors of TNF- production in
macrophages.28 Increased LPS resistance of GP mice
with an elevated level of TNF- may appear to be surprising. However,
in the last several years, the role of this cytokine has been
under revision. For example, in the model of high-dosage LPS,
TNF-–deficient heterozygous mice had significantly more increased
sensitivity than normal animals.29 Recent experiments with
IL-1ß–converting enzyme–knockout animals stress a primary role of
the IL-1 family of cytokines at a high dosage of
LPS.30 As demonstrated here, in GPx1 and GPxP animals, the
level of this particular cytokine decreased after LPS
administration.
In conclusion, the overall picture that emerges during endotoxemia in GP transgenic mice is very complex. Only 1 single event or mediator is unlikely to be responsible for the altered response in these animals, but a multitude of factors may contribute to the observed phenotype. We hypothesize that GP overexpression is able to influence extracellular and intracellular redox balance, leading to the modulation of NO, arachidonic acid metabolites, and cytokines. Those alternations lead to the inhibition of hypotension and improved circulatory failure, and therefore a significant effect on survival during endotoxemia was observed.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by the Foundation of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey and the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Quebec, Canada. We thank E. Yurkow for cytofluorographic analysis, S. Gravel for assistance with HPLC analysis, and K. Reuhl for histopathological analysis.
Received March 27, 2000; revision received June 2, 2000; accepted June 20, 2000.
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