© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Cellular Biology |
1
,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Inhibits Angiogenesis In Vitro and In Vivo
From the Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, Department of Medicine (D.J.M., P.E.O., E.B.M., A.E.C.) and Surgery (N.J.B.), University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Modulation of angiogenesis is now a recognized strategy for the prevention and treatment of pathologies categorized by their reliance on a vascular supply. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of 1
,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3
[1,25(OH)2D3], the active metabolite of
vitamin D3, on angiogenesis by using well-characterized in
vitro and in vivo model systems. 1,25(OH)2D3
(1x10-9 to 1x10-7
mol/L) significantly inhibited vascular endothelial
growth factor (VEGF)-induced endothelial cell sprouting
and elongation in vitro in a dose-dependent manner and had a small, but
significant, inhibitory effect on VEGF-induced
endothelial cell proliferation.
1,25(OH)2D3 also inhibited the formation of
networks of elongated endothelial cells within 3D
collagen gels. The addition of 1,25(OH)2D3 to
endothelial cell cultures containing sprouting
elongated cells induced the regression of these cells, in the absence
of any effect on cells present in the cobblestone monolayer.
Analysis of nuclear morphology, DNA integrity, and enzymatic in
situ labeling of apoptosis-induced strand breaks demonstrated
that this regression was due to the induction of apoptosis
specifically within the sprouting cell population. The effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on angiogenesis in vivo was
investigated by using a model in which MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells,
which had been induced to overexpress VEGF, were xenografted
subcutaneously together with MDA-435S breast carcinoma cells into nude
mice. Treatment with 1,25(OH)2D3 (12.5 pmol/d
for 8 weeks) produced tumors that were less well vascularized than
tumors formed in mice treated with vehicle alone. These results
highlight the potential use of 1,25(OH)2D3 in
both the prevention and regression of conditions characterized by
pathological angiogenesis.
Key Words: endothelium • angiogenesis • apoptosis • vitamin D3 • growth factors
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from an existing vascular bed, is of fundamental importance in several physiological and pathological processes, including atherosclerosis, diabetic retinopathy, psoriasis, and tumor growth and metastasis.1 2 The angiogenic process is characterized by a series of stages: (1) degradation of the vascular basement membrane, (2) sprouting, elongation, migration, and proliferation of endothelial cells, (3) association of endothelial cells into new tubular channels, and (4) synthesis of a new basement membrane, recruitment of perivascular cells, and vessel maturation.3 These processes are tightly controlled through a balance of positive and negative regulatory factors.2
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key mediator of angiogenesis.4 5 This growth factor stimulates endothelial cell proliferation, sprouting, migration, and morphogenesis, acting via 2 high-affinity class II receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGF-R1 (flt-1) and VEGF-R2 (KDR/flk-1).5 VEGF is also a survival factor for newly formed vessels6 7 and is essential for embryonic development, because mice deficient in VEGF, VEGF-R1, or VEGF-R2 die in utero of vascular defects.4 5
The reliance of many pathological conditions on angiogenesis has led to
the proposal that such diseases can be controlled by use of
antiangiogenic compounds that inhibit or regress newly forming blood
vessels.2 The effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin
D3
[1,25(OH)2D3] on
angiogenesis is unclear, having been reported to decrease8
or have no effect9 10 on endothelial cell
proliferation, to have no effect on the formation of capillary tubelike
structures in vitro,11 and to inhibit angiogenesis in
vivo.12
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on the proliferation, sprouting, and elongation of endothelial cells and on their subsequent association into multicellular cords and tubelike structures by using well-characterized in vitro model systems.13 14 15 The effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo was investigated in a tumor model by using cells that had been induced to overexpress VEGF.16 Accordingly, we demonstrate that 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we show that 1,25(OH)2D3 specifically induces the regression of preformed endothelial cell sprouts, multicellular cords, and networks of elongated endothelial cells in vitro, and we demonstrate the involvement of apoptosis in this process.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Cell Culture
Bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) were cultured in 10% FCS-MEM on gelatin-coated dishes.13 Recombinant human VEGF (VEGF165, 20 ng/mL, from Dr D. Ogilvy, AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, Macclesfield, UK) and 1,25(OH)2D3 (1x10-9 to 1x10-7 mol/L, Roche) were added when the medium was changed (every 2 days). Control cultures received vehicle alone (10 µL ethanol/mL medium). Duplicate dishes were used in every experiment.
Proliferation Assay
BAECs were plated in 10% FCS-MEM. After 24 hours (day 1), VEGF
was added with or without
1,25(OH)2D3 in 2% FCS-MEM
or serum-free MEM. Proliferation was assessed by counting cell numbers
on days 1 and 613 and by measuring
[3H]thymidine incorporation into
trichloroacetic acid–insoluble material.17
Angiogenesis In Vitro
Confluent BAECs were incubated in 2% FCS-MEM containing VEGF
with or without 1,25(OH)2D3
for 14 days. Angiogenesis was quantified by using a computerized image
analysis system (Quantimet 600). Two cross-sectional diameters
were assessed, field-by-field (20 fields per dish). Elongated sprouting
cells were delineated digitally, and the area occupied by these cells
was calculated and expressed as percentage of the total field area. The
effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on
preformed endothelial cell sprouts was investigated by
incubating confluent endothelial cells with VEGF for 4
days before the addition of
1,25(OH)2D3.
The effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on later stages of angiogenesis was investigated by culturing cells within 3D collagen gels.13 After 2 hours in 10% FCS-MEM, the cells were cultured in 2% FCS-MEM with or without 1,25(OH)2D3 for 5 days. To determine the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on preformed networks of elongated endothelial cells within collagen gels, 1,25(OH)2D3 was added after 4 days of culture in 10% FCS-MEM.
Apoptosis Assays
Apoptosis was assessed by using the In Situ Cell Death
Detection Kit (Boehringer-Mannheim). Cell nuclei were examined
by fluorescence microscopy after staining with acridine orange.
The integrity of DNA extracted from cells cultured on gelatin-coated
dishes in the presence of VEGF and
1,25(OH)2D3 was
assessed.18
In Vivo Assays
Female BALB/c nu/nu mice, aged 6 weeks (Charles River Ltd,
Margate, UK), received 2 dorsal subcutaneous implants under
halothane anesthesia: a slow release pellet of
estradiol (1 mg) and a 14-day micro-osmotic pump (Alza), which released
either 12.5 pmol/d
1,25(OH)2D3 in propylene
glycol (4 mice) or vehicle alone (4 mice). Six days later, each mouse
received, under fluothane anesthesia, a subcutaneous
implant in each flank of 107 MCF7 breast cancer
cells transfected with VEGF plus 107 MDA-435S
breast cancer cells (from Dr R. Bicknell, University of Oxford, Oxford,
UK).16 Pumps were replaced after 14 days. After 28 days,
both 1,25(OH)2D3 and
estradiol were provided by weekly subcutaneous injections in propylene
glycol. Tumor growth was monitored weekly. After 8 weeks, mice were
killed by an excess of anesthetic, and the tumors were harvested.
Histochemical staining of frozen tumor sections and assessment of
microvessel density was performed.16 MEC13.3 (rat
anti-mouse CD31) was kindly provided by Dr A. Vecchi, Milano, Italy.
Experiments were performed in accordance with UK Home Office
Guidelines.
Statistics
Differences between continuous variables were examined by
the Student t test. Multiple comparisons of continuous data
were examined by 1-way ANOVA with post hoc comparisons using the method
of Bonferroni. Comparisons of proportionality were performed by
calculation of the z statistic. The Mann-Whitney
U test was used to compare microvessel density in different
tumor samples.
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Results |
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1,25(OH)2D3 Inhibits VEGF-Induced Endothelial Cell Proliferation
1,25(OH)2D3 was added to semiconfluent BAECs cultured in the presence of VEGF, and the effects of these factors on cell proliferation were determined. VEGF stimulates endothelial cell proliferation (P<0.01) (Figure 1
and Online
Table 1, available at http://www.circresaha.org).
1,25(OH)2D3 inhibited
VEGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation, and this
inhibition was dose dependent [P<0.05 at
1x10-7 mol/L
1,25(OH)2D3] (Figure
1 and Online Table 1, available at http://www.circresaha.org).
Final cell counts in cultures incubated with VEGF and
1x10-7 mol/L
1,25(OH)2D3 were equivalent
to those incubated in control medium (Figure 1).
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P<0.05 vs
VEGF-treated group.
1,25(OH)2D3 Inhibits Angiogenesis In
Vitro
To determine the effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on the early
stages of growth factor–induced angiogenesis in vitro, VEGF was added
to confluent BAECs in the presence and absence of
1,25(OH)2D3, and the
formation of elongated sprouting endothelial cells was
investigated and quantified by image analysis (Figures 2 and 3).
Control endothelial cells remained as monolayers of
polygonal cells, characteristic of the "resting" phenotype
of quiescent endothelial cells (Figure 2A). A
small number of single, elongated, sprouting cells appeared in the
control cultures as the experiment progressed; however, these cells
remained isolated and few in number. VEGF induced the formation of
sprouting elongated cells underneath the cobblestone monolayer that
combined to form networks of interconnected multicellular cords (Figure
2B). The simultaneous addition of
1,25(OH)2D3 and VEGF
significantly inhibited the morphogenetic effect of this growth factor
in a dose-dependent manner [P<0.05 at
1x10-9 mol/L
1,25(OH)2D3;
P<0.01 at
1x10-8 to
1x10-7 mol/L
1,25(OH)2D3] (Figures
2 and 3). The few sprouting cells that were present
were less elongated than those formed in the absence of
1,25(OH)2D3, and these
cells remained isolated and did not combine into networks (Figure
2C). The addition of
1,25(OH)2D3
(1x10-7 mol/L) alone
inhibited the formation of endothelial cell sprouts in
control medium (P<0.01) but had no effect on the morphology
of the cells present in the cobblestone monolayer (Figures
2D and 3).
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P<0.01 vs VEGF alone.
To investigate further the effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on
endothelial cell morphogenesis, cells were plated
within collagen gels. Under these conditions,
endothelial cells elongate, migrate, and self-associate
into tubelike structures in the absence of cell
proliferation.13 Control BAECs plated in collagen gels
adopted an elongated morphology and associated with each other to form
networks of cells (Figure 4A). In
contrast, cells cultured in the presence of
1,25(OH)2D3 remained
rounded (Figure 4B).
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1,25(OH)2D3 Induces Regression of Existing
Sprouting Endothelial Cells
The effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on preexisting
elongated sprouting cells was investigated. Confluent
endothelial cells were induced to sprout in the
presence of VEGF. Cultures were then incubated in the presence or
absence of 1,25(OH)2D3
without growth factor. In control cultures, networks of elongated
sprouting cells were still present 6 days after the withdrawal of
VEGF (Figure 5A). Incubation of cells
with 1,25(OH)2D3 resulted
in a dose-dependent regression of the sprouting cells. Moreover, the
sprouting cells present in these cultures were less elongated and
heavily vacuolated compared with control cultures (Figure
5B).
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The effect of 1,25(OH)2D3
on endothelial cell morphogenesis in collagen gels was
also investigated. The addition of
1,25(OH)2D3 resulted in the
regression of the elongated sprouting cells to rounded cells (Figure
5D). In contrast, control cells remained elongated (Figure
5C).
1,25(OH)2D3 Specifically Induces
Apoptosis of Sprouting Endothelial Cells
The induction of apoptosis by
1,25(OH)2D3 was
investigated by 3 methods. First, DNA strand breaks were detected by
using an in situ cell death assay, terminal
deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated dUTP nick
end-labeling (TUNEL) (Figures 6A through
6C). Limited regression of sprouting cells was observed in control
cultures. Nuclei of sprouting endothelial cells were
generally negative for DNA fragmentation, as indicated by low TUNEL
staining (Figure 6A). The addition of
1,25(OH)2D3
(1x10-7 mol/L) to
VEGF-stimulated cultures resulted in a high number of nuclei that were
positive for DNA fragmentation. Stained nuclei were specifically
associated with the population of sprouting endothelial
cells; no staining was observed in the cobblestone monolayer (Figures
6B and 6C). Second, examination of the integrity of the DNA
isolated from cells cultured in the presence of
1,25(OH)2D3 demonstrated
the presence of a DNA ladder indicative of internucleosomal cleavage to
180- to 200-bp integers in these samples (Figure 6D). Third, the
nuclear morphology of cells incubated in the presence or absence of
1,25(OH)2D3 was assessed
(Figures 6E and 6F). Homogeneous populations of
sprouting cells were obtained by plating the cells within collagen
gels. Cells incubated in the presence or absence of
1,25(OH)2D3 were
collected13 and stained with acridine orange. The number
of apoptotic cells, as assessed by the presence of chromatin
condensation and fragmentation of nuclei (Figure 6F), was
determined, and the results were expressed as a percentage of the total
number of cells present. Cells incubated with
1,25(OH)2D3 had
significantly more apoptotic nuclei (12.0%) than did control
cells (3.75%) (z=4.34, P<0.0001).
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1,25(OH)2D3 Inhibits Angiogenesis In
Vivo
The effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on the
formation of microvessels in vivo was examined by using a model in
which MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells that had been induced to overexpress
VEGF121 (VEGF transfectants) were xenografted
subcutaneously together with MDA-435S breast carcinoma cells into nude
mice.16
Tumors were formed in all of the mice injected with VEGF transfectants.
Immunohistochemistry using a rat anti-CD31 antibody was used to assess
the vascularity of the tumors produced in these mice. Clusters of small
capillaries were present in all tumors (Figure 7). However, treatment with
1,25(OH)2D3 produced tumors
that appeared less vascularized than tumors formed in mice treated with
vehicle alone (P=0.079, Figure 8) (compare Figures 7A and 7B with
Figures 7C and 7D). In addition, large capillaries were evident
in tumors formed in control animals (Figures 7E and 7F); these
were never observed in tumors formed after treatment with
1,25(OH)2D3. Tumor volume
was not significantly altered, and the proportion of MCF7 and MDA-435S
cells present in the tumors was not different in mice treated with
1,25(OH)2D3 compared with
those treated with vehicle alone (assessed as
described,16 results not shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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We have demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2D3 has antiangiogenic properties in vivo and in vitro that are mediated by a direct effect on "activated" endothelial cells. First, using in vitro model systems, we have demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2D3 (1x10-9 to 1x10-7 mol/L) markedly inhibits endothelial cell sprouting and morphogenesis and has a small, but significant, inhibitory effect on VEGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation. Second, we have shown that 1,25(OH)2D3 induces the regression of existing endothelial cell sprouts and elongated cells and have established the involvement of apoptosis in this process. Finally, we have demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2D3 (at a dose of 12.5 pmol/d) appears to inhibit the formation of new blood vessels in tumor xenografts induced to overexpress VEGF. This dose, which does not induce hypercalcemia in mice, has previously been shown to stimulate calcium transport in weanling rats and is of the same order of magnitude, on a weight basis, as the therapeutic replacement dose in humans.
The majority of studies on the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on cell growth and differentiation report an inhibition of proliferation coupled with an induction of differentiation, with responses occurring in the concentration range 1x10-9 to 1x10-7 mol/L.19 20 However, the response of endothelial cells to 1,25(OH)2D3 has produced conflicting results. One study concluded that 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits serum-induced endothelial cell proliferation.8 In contrast, other studies found that 1,25(OH)2D3 had no effect on serum-induced endothelial cell growth,9 10 consistent with our data. We have now extended these studies and demonstrate that 1,25(OH)2D3 causes a small, but significant, inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation induced by VEGF and that this inhibition is dose dependent.
The most marked effect on endothelial cells was on the induction (and maintenance) of the elongated sprouting phenotype in these cells and on the subsequent association of these elongated cells into networks. Endothelial cell sprouting and morphogenesis is fundamental to the angiogenic process.3 Endothelial cells contained within developing vessel buds form vascular sprouts in vivo, undergoing morphogenic alterations involving cellular extension and the formation of elongated projections. We demonstrate that the simultaneous addition of 1,25(OH)2D3 and VEGF to confluent endothelial cells results in a dose-dependent inhibition of the sprouting induced when VEGF is added alone. No disruption of the cobblestone monolayer of endothelial cells was observed when 1,25(OH)2D3 was added to cultured cells. To investigate the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on the elongation of endothelial cells and their association into networks in the absence of any effect on proliferation, cells were plated within collagen gels.13 Using this model system, we have confirmed that both sprouting and elongation of the cells and their association into networks are inhibited by 1,25(OH)2D3.
The inhibition of endothelial cell spouting and
morphogenesis by
1,25(OH)2D3 is
consistent with the antiangiogenic effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 reported with
use of the chick chorioallantoic membrane.12 The use of in
vitro model systems in the present study has extended this latter
study to establish a direct effect of
1,25(OH)2D3 on
endothelial cells. Lansink et al11 have
recently demonstrated that high concentrations of
1,25(OH)2D3
(1x10-5 to
1x10-6 mol/L) have little
effect on the formation of capillary tubelike structures by human
dermal microvascular endothelial cells cultured on
fibrin matrices in the presence of basic fibroblast growth factor and
tumor necrosis factor-. These seemingly divergent results may be
explained by differences in the nature of the model system (fibrin
versus collagen), the stimulatory factors used (VEGF versus basic
fibroblast growth factor and tumor necrosis factor-), and the
concentrations of
1,25(OH)2D3 tested.
However, it is noteworthy that
1,25(OH)2D3
(1x10-9 to
1x10-7 mol/L) inhibits
the formation of elongated sprouting cells in BAEC cultures stimulated
with hepatocyte growth factor (D.J. Mantell, A.E. Canfield,
unpublished data, 2000).
The inhibitory effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on growth factor–stimulated proliferation and morphogenesis can be explained through a number of mechanisms. First, growth factors can modulate the expression of the nuclear vitamin D receptor.21 Second, 1,25(OH)2D3 may regulate phospholipase C production by the cells,22 which, in turn, may modulate signal transduction by receptors with tyrosine kinase activity, including VEGF-R1 and VEGF-R2. Finally, 1,25(OH)2D3 can modulate the expression of growth factor receptors.23 However, it has been shown that 1,25(OH)2D3 has no effect on the expression of VEGF receptor genes by endothelial cells,10 suggesting that the inhibition of VEGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation observed in the present study is not due to a downregulation of VEGF receptors by 1,25(OH)2D3.
Importantly, we demonstrate that 1,25(OH)2D3 also induces the regression of elongated sprouting cells in vitro by inducing apoptosis specifically within this cell population. 1,25(OH)2D3 induces apoptosis of cancer cell lines in vitro24 and in vivo.25 Previous studies have shown that 1,25(OH)2D3 upregulates clusterin and cathepsin B.24 In addition, 1,25(OH)2D3 downregulates the antiapoptotic bcl-2 protein while upregulating p53 expression, resulting in active cell death.26 VEGF prevents apoptosis in cultured endothelial cells by inducing the expression of the antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and A1.27 Therefore, it will be of particular interest to determine the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on the expression of antiapoptotic and proapoptotic proteins by endothelial cells.
The induction of apoptosis of cancer cells in vivo has been suggested as the mechanism behind the regression of tumors observed when analogues of 1,25(OH)2D3 are administered.25 However, the demonstration in the present study, which just falls short of statistical significance, that low doses of 1,25(OH)2D3 appear to inhibit the formation of new blood vessels in an in vivo model of VEGF-induced tumor angiogenesis (P=0.079) suggests that regression of the vascular supply by the induction of apoptosis in growth factor–stimulated endothelial cells may be another mechanism by which 1,25(OH)2D3 causes tumor regression. Furthermore, large capillaries were never observed in tumors formed after treatment with 1,25(OH)2D3, suggesting that 1,25(OH)2D3 may also inhibit vessel growth and maturation. The fact that we did not detect any differences in tumor volumes may reflect either the low dose of 1,25(OH)2D3, the duration of the experiments, and/or the number of animals used. The use of high doses of 1,25(OH)2D3 was avoided because of the risk of inducing hypercalcemia in the mice. But the finding that even this low dose of 1,25(OH)2D3 (which is within the normal range) inhibited VEGF-induced angiogenesis in vivo raises the possibility that 1,25(OH)2D3 analogues with less calcemic effects could be used even more successfully in this model. Furthermore, these data are consistent with our clinical study showing that serum 1,25(OH)2D3 levels are inversely related to disease progression in patients with metastatic breast cancer.28
In summary, we demonstrate that 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits specific stages of the angiogenic process. The direct effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on endothelial cell proliferation and morphogenesis observed with the use of these in vitro model systems provide evidence consistent with the antiangiogenic effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 shown in vivo. Furthermore, the induction of apoptosis specifically within the activated, angiogenic, endothelial cell population suggests that this may be the mechanism behind the observed antiangiogenic effects of 1,25(OH)2D3. These results suggest that 1,25(OH)2D3 (or analogues of this hormone) may be of use in the prevention of conditions involving pathological angiogenesis and may also be of use in the therapeutic regression of such conditions characterized by aberrant angiogenesis.
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Acknowledgments |
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The financial support of the University of Manchester Bequest Fund, Pearl Assurance, and Association for International Cancer Research are gratefully acknowledged. We also thank Adele Poole for excellent technical assistance.
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Footnotes |
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Reprint requests to Dr A.E. Canfield, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, Department of Medicine, University of Manchester, 2.205 Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
Received April 28, 2000; accepted June 8, 2000.
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