© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Integrative Physiology |
Ischemic Preconditioning Activates MAPKAPK2 in the Isolated Rabbit Heart
Evidence for Involvement of p38 MAPK
From the Departments of Physiology (A.N., C.P.B., J.M.D., M.V.C.), Medicine (M.V.C.), and Structural and Cellular Biology (S.D.C.), University of South Alabama, Mobile, Ala, and Department of Medicine (S.O.K., S.L.P.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Correspondence to Michael V. Cohen, Department of Physiology, MSB 3050, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688-0002.
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Recent studies suggest that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) may be involved in ischemic preconditioning (PC). To further test this possibility, the regulation of MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2), a kinase immediately downstream from p38 MAPK, and the activity of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), a second MAPK, were examined in preconditioned hearts. Isolated, perfused rabbit hearts were subjected to 20 to 30 minutes of global ischemia. Ventricular biopsies before treatment and after 20 minutes of ischemia were homogenized, and the activities of MAPKAPK2 and JNK were evaluated. For the MAPKAPK2 experiments, 7 groups were studied, as follows: control hearts; preconditioned hearts; hearts treated with 500 nmol/L R(–) N6-(2-phenylisopropyl) adenosine (PIA), an A1-adenosine receptor agonist; preconditioned hearts pretreated with 100 µmol/L 8-(p-sulfophenyl) theophylline (SPT), an adenosine receptor antagonist; preconditioned hearts also treated with SB 203580, a potent inhibitor of p38 MAPK activation; hearts treated with 50 ng/mL anisomycin (a p38 MAPK/JNK activator); and hearts treated with both anisomycin (50 ng/mL) and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein (50 µmol/L). MAPKAPK2 activity was not altered in control hearts after 20 minutes of global ischemia. By contrast, there was a 3.8-fold increase in activity during ischemia in preconditioned hearts. Activation of MAPKAPK2 in preconditioned hearts was blocked by both SPT and SB 203580. MAPKAPK2 activity during ischemia increased 3.5-fold and 3.3-fold in hearts pretreated with PIA or anisomycin, respectively. MAPKAPK2 activation during ischemia in hearts pretreated with anisomycin was blocked by genistein. In separate hearts, anisomycin mimicked the anti-infarct effect of PC, and that protection was abolished by genistein. JNK activity was measured in control and preconditioned hearts. There was a comparable, modest decline in activity during 30 minutes of global ischemia in both groups. As a positive control, a third group of hearts was treated with anisomycin before global ischemia, and in these, JNK activity increased by 290% above baseline. These results confirm that the p38 MAPK/MAPKAPK2 pathway is activated during ischemia only if the heart is in a preconditioned state. These data further support p38 MAPK as an important signaling component in ischemic PC.
Key Words: anisomycin • p38 MAPK • ischemic preconditioning • JNK • MAPKAPK2
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Brief exposure of the myocardium to ischemia substantially enhances tolerance to a subsequent ischemic insult by a process known as ischemic preconditioning (PC).1 Although ischemic PC has been observed in all species examined, the mechanism of protection is not fully understood. Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) has been proposed as an important step in the cellular pathway to PC.2 3 However, the cellular pathways beyond activation of PKC are still not clear and are currently being sought.
Recently, several studies have examined the potential role of
mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in
PC.4 5 6 The MAPKs are proline-directed
protein-serine/threonine kinases, and several distinct families of
MAPKs have been identified in mammals, each having a unique activation
pathway.7 The major MAPKs found in cardiac tissue include
the extracellular signal–regulated kinases (ERK1/ERK2), the p46 and
p54 c-Jun NH2-terminal
kinase/stress-activated protein kinases (JNK/SAPKs), and the
and ß isoforms of p38.8 The ERKs are strongly
activated by mitogenic stimuli such as
angiotensin.9 JNK and p38 MAPK can be
activated by various stresses including heat,10
osmotic shock,11 12 UV light,13 14
endotoxin,12 cytokines,15 16 and
ischemia/reperfusion.17 18 The activation of p38
MAPK requires phosphorylation of Thr180 and Tyr182
within a TGY motif.12 Phosphorylation of
both of these residues is carried out by dual-specificity MAPK kinases
(MKKs), and MKK3 and MKK6 are the physiological
activators of p38.19 The MKKs themselves are
activated by many upstream protein-serine/threonine kinases
including the large mixed-lineage kinase family, transforming growth
factor-ß–activated kinase-1, and the MAPK/ERK kinase kinase
family.7 Once active, p38 MAPK then stimulates MAPKAPK2 in
a phosphorylation-dependent manner, which in turn leads
to the phosphorylation of the low molecular weight heat
shock protein, HSP27.10 16 20 In many cells,
phosphorylation of HSP27 leads to the polymerization of
actin,21 which appears to increase the tolerance of the
cytoskeleton to stress.22
It has been reported that p38 MAPK can be activated by adenosine23 24 and phenylephrine, endothelin, and the PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate in neonatal myocytes,25 indicating a link between PKC and p38 MAPK. Maulik et al5 also demonstrated that MAPKAPK2 activities were increased in the preconditioned rat heart. Our studies have shown that the level of phosphorylation of the activation site of p38 MAPK is specifically increased during ischemia, but only in preconditioned hearts.6 Moreover, pretreatment with anisomycin, an activator of the p38 MAPK/JNK pathways, mimicked cardioprotection.6 26 27 Together, these results support a role for the p38 MAPK cascade in the path to ischemic PC.
To further test the role of p38 MAPK in PC, we first examined whether the activity of MAPKAPK2 was similarly increased during ischemia in preconditioned hearts and whether PC-mimetic drugs could duplicate this effect. We also tested whether either a pharmacological inhibitor of PC protection or a specific antagonist of p38 MAPK activation could abolish this increase. p38 MAPK is a dually regulated kinase, requiring phosphorylation of both a tyrosine and a nearby threonine residue for activity.12 Because genistein, an inhibitor of tyrosine kinases, blocks PC protection, we hypothesized that the site of blockade might be at the tyrosine phosphorylation of p38. To test whether the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK could be the site of the blockade of genistein, we activated p38 MAPK with anisomycin and tested whether genistein could block the resulting increase in MAPKAPK2 activity. Finally, we examined whether JNK, also stimulated by anisomycin, was activated in the preconditioned heart before or during ischemia.
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Materials and Methods |
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All procedures were performed in compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Washington, DC: National Academic Press, 1996).
Isolated Rabbit Heart Model and MAPKAPK2 Studies
As previously described,28 hearts were isolated
from New Zealand White rabbits, mounted on a Langendorff
apparatus, and perfused with Krebs buffer. For the infarct
studies only, a snare was passed around a coronary artery
branch. As shown in Figure 1
, the
following groups were studied: control (n=4); PC (n=3); PC+the
adenosine receptor antagonist
8-(p-sulfophenyl) theophylline (SPT, 100 µmol/L)
(n=3); PC+the selective antagonist of p38 MAPK activation
SB 203580 (SB, 10 µmol/L) (n=3); R(–)
N6-(2-phenylisopropyl)
adenosine (PIA), an A1-adenosine
receptor agonist (500 nmol/L) (n=4); anisomycin, a p38 MAPK/JNK
activator (50 ng/mL) (n=3); and combined
anisomycin+genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (50
µmol/L) (n=4). Transmural biopsies were obtained just before global
ischemia in the control group or before treatment in all other
groups as indicated by the arrows in Figure 1. A second biopsy
was taken in all hearts after 20 minutes of global
ischemia.
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Biopsies were homogenized with a Polytron in ice-cold buffer containing EGTA+protease and phosphatase inhibitors. An aliquot of the 13 000g supernatant (1 mg protein) was applied to a Hi-trap SP fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) column and was eluted using a linear NaCl gradient from 0 to 0.3 mol/L NaCl at a flow rate of 1 mL/min after slight modification of previously reported elution protocols.10 25 Fractions (1 mL) were collected and assayed immediately for their ability to phosphorylate a substrate peptide (KKLNRTLSVA) derived from the N terminus of human glycogen synthase.29 The kinase assay mixture also contained PKI (a cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor), chelerythrine (a PKC inhibitor), H-7 (a broad-spectrum kinase inhibitor), KN-62 (a calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase [CaMK]–II inhibitor), and okadaic acid (a phosphatase inhibitor). Some fractions were also subjected to SDS-PAGE electrophoresis30 and probed with anti-MAPKAPK2 antibodies.31
JNK Studies
Biopsies from 5 isolated rabbit hearts were obtained immediately
before the 5-minute PC ischemia (basal); just before onset of
the 30-minute global ischemia (0 minutes); and thereafter at 5,
10, 20, and 30 minutes. The basal biopsy was obviously omitted from the
5 control hearts. In anisomycin-treated hearts (n=3), 50 ng/mL of the
drug was added to the perfusate for 15 minutes before
ischemia. The first biopsy was obtained before anisomycin, and
thereafter, timing of biopsies was identical to that noted above.
JNK activity was determined with a commercially available assay. Biopsy homogenate was incubated with amino acids 1 to 89 of a c-Jun fusion protein attached to beads so that JNK would bind to the peptide on the beads. Washed beads were then incubated with kinase buffer containing ATP to allow JNK to phosphorylate the peptide. The beads then underwent conventional 10% SDS-PAGE electrophoresis, and substrate phosphorylation was determined with c-Jun phosphospecific antibody. Activity was expressed as a function of baseline activity.
Infarct Size Studies
Control isolated hearts (n=6) were subjected to 30 minutes of
regional ischemia and 2 hours of reperfusion. The anisomycin
group (n=6) received anisomycin (50 ng/mL) over 45 minutes, starting 15
minutes before and continuing until the end of ischemia. In the
genistein group (n=6), genistein (50 µmol/L) was infused for 50
minutes, starting 20 minutes before the 30-minute regional
ischemia. The 2 drug protocols were then combined in the
anisomycin+ genistein group (n=5). As previously
detailed,28 at the end of reperfusion, the risk
zone was determined with fluorescent particles and
infarct size with triphenyltetrazolium
chloride. Infarction is expressed as a percentage of the risk
region.
Statistics
One-way ANOVA with the Scheffé post hoc test was used to
test for differences in baseline hemodynamics and
infarct size between groups. ANOVA with repeated measures was used to
test for differences in hemodynamics within any
given group.
An expanded Materials and Methods section is available online at http://www.circresaha.org.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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MAPKAPK2 Studies
Hemodynamic parameters were evaluated in all experimental groups. There were no significant differences at baseline in heart rate (range 201 to 224 bpm), developed pressure (range 90 to 118 mm Hg), or coronary flow (range 48 to 69 mL/min) among the groups. Representative MAPKAPK2 activity profiles are illustrated in Figure 2
. In the untreated control heart,
MAPKAPK2 activity was unchanged before (closed circles) and 20 minutes
after (open circles) the onset of global ischemia. In contrast,
2 peaks of kinase activity were observed in preconditioned hearts after
20 minutes of global ischemia, whereas the basal activity in
the same heart was negligible. This increase in kinase activity was
completely blocked by the adenosine receptor
antagonist SPT, as well as the potent
antagonist of p38 MAPK activation, SB 203580. Other
treatments known to mimic ischemic PC also increased MAPKAPK2
activity after 20 minutes of global ischemia. Both the
A1-adenosine receptor agonist PIA and the
p38 MAPK/JNK activator anisomycin elicited a single peak of
MAPKAPK2 activity after 20 minutes of ischemia compared with
baseline. Interestingly, the anisomycin-induced kinase activity was
greatly attenuated by pretreatment with the protein-tyrosine kinase
inhibitor genistein.
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) 20 minutes
of global ischemia in each of the following 7 groups: untreated
control, preconditioned (PC), PC+SPT, PC+SB, PIA, anisomycin (ANISO),
and ANISO+genistein (GEN). Homogenate was passed over a
Hi-trap SP column using 0.3 mol/L NaCl gradient, and each column
fraction was assayed for MAPKAPK2-like activity. Note that PC causes 2
peaks of activity, whereas PIA and anisomycin activate only a
single peak. Dotted lines indicate NaCl gradients.
The observation that MAPKAPK2 activity was detected in 2 peaks after
FPLC separation was unexpected. Furthermore, because ischemic
PC activated 2 peaks whereas pharmacological PC
activated only a single peak, it became important to identify
which, if either, peak was MAPKAPK2. This issue was addressed by
Western blotting analysis of the fractions using an
anti-MAPKAPK2 antibody, which demonstrated that the first peak
corresponded with the MAPKAPK2 protein (Figure 3). Both known isoforms of MAPKAPK2
(
50 and 60 kDa) were confined to the first peak.32 The
kinase present in the second peak has yet to be identified.
Interestingly, activation of p38 MAPK indirectly with PIA and more
directly with anisomycin produced only 1 peak, but SB 203580 treatment
of ischemically preconditioned hearts eliminated both
peaks.
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Figure 4 presents the mean data from
these studies. Phosphotransferase or MAPKAPK2-like activity after 20
minutes of ischemia is expressed as a percentage of basal
activity (µmol/L ATP/mg protein/min) in each experimental group.
There was no change in the MAPKAPK2-like activity after global
ischemia alone (control). However, ischemic PC elicited
a 3.8-fold increase in MAPKAPK2 activity (first peak) that was
completely abolished by pretreatment with SPT. Similar abolition of
activity was observed in preconditioned hearts treated with SB 203580.
Treatment with the adenosine agonist PIA, in lieu of PC,
increased MAPKAPK2 activity 3.5-fold, whereas pretreatment with
anisomycin increased the enzyme activity 3.3-fold. The effect of the
latter was reversed by genistein, indicating that the dual-specificity
kinase that phosphorylates p38 may be inhibited by
genistein.
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JNK Studies
There were no significant differences in
hemodynamics between the 3 experimental groups. Western
blots from representative control and preconditioned
hearts are presented in Figure 5. As determined from the amount
of phosphorylated c-Jun at each time point, there was a
small decrease in JNK activity during the initial 10 minutes of
ischemia compared with the preischemic activity in
both control and preconditioned hearts. There was an additional, more
substantial decrease in the final 20 minutes of ischemia.
Again, the change seemed to be comparable in the 2 hearts. The group
data in Figure 6 confirm a modest and
equivalent decrease in JNK activity in both control and preconditioned
hearts throughout 30 minutes of global ischemia. As a positive
control, 3 hearts were pretreated with anisomycin before the period of
global ischemia. As is evident from Figure 6, there was
a dramatic increase in JNK activity, with a peak 290% above baseline
after 20 minutes of ischemia. Therefore, our assay system was
clearly capable of detecting increases in JNK activity.
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Infarct Size Studies
The above results confirm that genistein can block activation of
MAPKAPK2 by anisomycin. In light of that result, we tested whether
genistein could also reverse the anti-infarct effect of anisomycin.
Baseline hemodynamics were not different in any group.
Anisomycin did not affect any of the hemodynamic
parameters. Genistein induced a small but significant
reduction in developed pressure (114±3 to 104±4 mm Hg,
P<0.05) and increase in coronary flow (68±3 to
77±1 mL/min; P<0.05). Figure 7 reveals that anisomycin reduced
infarction from 33.0±3% of the risk zone to 7.5±1.6%
(P<0.05), similar to that seen with ischemic PC.
However, protection was completely blocked by inhibition of tyrosine
kinase with genistein (37.4±3.8% infarction), which itself did not
affect infarct size (33.9±2.6% infarction). These data further
support the hypothesis that PC protects by activating the p38 MAPK
pathway during ischemia and that genistein blocks protection
from ischemic PC by preventing the tyrosine
phosphorylation of p38 MAPK.
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Discussion |
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We have previously shown that the level of phosphorylation of Tyr182 (one of the activation sites) of p38 MAPK is elevated during the sustained ischemia in preconditioned hearts, whereas no changes are seen in nonpreconditioned hearts.6 Furthermore, peak phosphorylation was observed after 20 minutes of global ischemia. Although we concluded that ischemic PC activated p38 MAPK, in fact we proved only that PC increased phosphorylation of the Tyr182 residue of that kinase. Because activation of p38 MAPK requires dual phosphorylation of both Tyr182 and Thr180 residues,12 increased phosphorylation of only the tyrosine residue does not necessarily imply activation of the kinase. However, the present study extends the prior findings by demonstrating that MAPKAPK2-like activity increased nearly 4-fold during the sustained ischemic period in preconditioned hearts. As MAPKAPK2 is the immediate downstream substrate for p38 MAPK,10 20 an increase in the activity of the former should be an index of p38 activation. This activation appears to be specific in that there was no discernible change in MAPKAPK2 activity during ischemia in hearts that did not experience PC ischemia.
Pretreatment with the nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist SPT, which blocks infarct size reduction from ischemic PC,33 34 also prevented the increase in MAPKAPK2 activity in preconditioned hearts. Moreover, we found that pharmacological agents that mimic ischemic PC in whole heart infarct models, including the A1-selective adenosine receptor agonist PIA,35 had a similar effect on MAPKAPK2 activity. The bacterial product anisomycin activates MKK3, -4, -6, and -736 37 and, therefore, will strongly activate p38 MAPK and JNK, but not ERK. Hence, not surprisingly, perfusion of the whole heart with anisomycin before prolonged ischemia also elevated MAPKAPK2 activity and protected the ischemic heart with a potency equivalent to that of ischemic PC. Finally, the potent inhibitor of p38 MAPK activation SB 20358038 blocked the increased activity previously observed in preconditioned hearts. All of these observations are consistent with a pathway that includes p38 MAPK and MAPKAPK2 playing a causative role in the cardioprotection provided by ischemic PC.
The JNK family consists of at least 2 isoforms, the 46-kDa JNK1 and the
54-kDa JNK2, both of which are present in the heart.18
Clerk et al18 have reported that both are strongly
activated on reperfusion but are not affected by
ischemia alone, although a recent preliminary report suggests
that JNK1 can also be activated by simple coronary
occlusion.39 Furthermore, stimulation of
Gq-coupled receptors and subsequently
PKC40 can also activate JNK. Ping et
al41 have recently demonstrated that transfection of
rabbit cardiomyocytes with the wild-type cDNA of PKC-
induced activation of p46/p54 JNK, whereas the activation of JNK by
coronary occlusion and reperfusion in rabbit hearts was
abolished by chelerythrine.39 Barancik et
al42 have reported significant increases in JNK activity
in preconditioned pig hearts, and Htun et al43 have
correlated a reduction in infarction with increased JNK activity in
hearts exposed to anisomycin. Because of these observations, we also
investigated whether ischemic PC in the rabbit heart would
increase JNK activity. There was no increase in either
nonpreconditioned or preconditioned hearts before or
during ischemia, nor did we see any differences between the
groups. On the other hand, JNK activity did increase substantially
after treatment with anisomycin. It is possible that species
variability accounts for the different conclusions. Nonetheless, our
data suggest that JNK is not part of the ischemic PC signal
transduction cascade in rabbits. Of course, one cannot exclude the
possibility that selective activation of the JNK pathway might in some
way produce cardioprotection.
After FPLC fractionation, we observed 2 peaks of MAPKAPK2 activity in
ischemically preconditioned hearts. This was an unexpected
finding. However, Western blotting indicated that only the first peak
contains the 2 isoforms of MAPKAPK2. Furthermore, PIA and anisomycin
activated the enzymes eluting in only the first peak. An
intriguing issue for further study is the identity of the second peak
of activity. The amino acid sequence of the substrate peptide is
reportedly selective for MAPKAPK2.44 However,
p90s6k kinase and CaMK-II have been reported to
also phosphorylate this peptide.20 29 To
eliminate possible interference from these kinases, the kinase reaction
mixture contained H-7, a potent inhibitor of several
kinases, including p90s6k kinase,45
and KN-62, a potent CaMK-II inhibitor.46 The
second peak may represent the recently described PRAK
(p38-regulated/-activated kinase), which is also regulated by
p38 MAPK.47 Because the sequence homology between MAPKAPK2
and PRAK is only 30%, they are not considered isoforms. Yet both
can phosphorylate HSP27. However, if the second peak were
indeed PRAK, then anisomycin should have also induced a second peak of
activity, given that both PRAK and MAPKAPK2 are thought to be under the
control of p38 MAPK. It is more probable that the second peak reflects
a kinase in a parallel pathway that is activated with PC but
the activation of which is unrelated to p38 MAPK. The second peak could
even be part of a redundant parallel pathway capable of causing
protection independent of PKC. Multiple cycles of PC reportedly can
overcome PKC blockade and restore protection.48 49 It is
possible that the second peak reflects this bypass pathway.
Unexpectedly, the potent p38 MAPK inhibitor SB 203580 also
abolished the second peak. It is unclear why SB 203580 can prevent
appearance of the second peak, whereas anisomycin cannot induce it.
Further investigative studies are clearly required to identify it.
In our preliminary experiments, we found direct assay of tissue homogenate to be unreliable, and it was only after resorting to FPLC to purify the samples that we obtained clear, reproducible results. Despite the relatively small number of replications, all groups included at least 3 hearts, and all replications yielded consistent data. The complexity of the assay and time required to process the samples from each heart limited the number of hearts that could be studied. We measured MAPKAPK2 activity at only 1 time point during ischemia in these hearts. The 20-minute time point was chosen, because that was when the peak of p38 MAPK phosphorylation was observed in the study by Weinbrenner et al.6 It is interesting to note that the pattern of MAPKAPK2 activity was identical to that of p38 phosphorylation, ie, there is only activation during ischemia if the heart is in a preconditioned state. This pattern is consistent with previous pharmacological studies using kinase inhibitors. The protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitors genistein and lavendustin A26 and the PKC inhibitors staurosporine and chelerythrine14 50 had no effect on infarction in nonpreconditioned hearts, but each abolished protection in preconditioned hearts. Furthermore, protection was prevented only if the inhibitor was present during the prolonged ischemic insult and not the brief PC ischemia.26 28 Blockade of adenosine receptors at the beginning of the prolonged ischemic period also prevents protection.51 Together with the present study, these data would suggest that PC elicits a coupling between adenosine and p38 MAPK that normally does not exist in a nonpreconditioned heart.
In previous studies, it has been observed that the protein-tyrosine
kinase inhibitor genistein could block protection from
ischemic PC in both isolated rabbit26 and
rat5 52 hearts. More recently, it was reported that
genistein could block activation of p38 MAPK in preconditioned
hearts.53 These observations led us to speculate that the
protein-tyrosine kinase in question could be phosphorylating the Tyr182
residue of p38 MAPK. This, in addition to
phosphorylation of Thr180, is required for activation
of p38, and the dual-specificity kinases MKK3 and MKK6 accomplish
phosphorylation of both of these
residues.12 Because genistein inhibits protein-tyrosine
kinases by interacting with the ATP-binding site,54 it
could potentially do the same to the catalytic domain of MKK3/MKK6.
However, as of yet, there are no studies addressing this issue. When we
directly activated MKKs with anisomycin, genistein blocked both
the resulting reduction of infarct size (Figure 7
) and
activation of MAPKAPK2 (Figures 2 and 4). Because p38
MAPK and MAPKAPK2 are protein-serine/threonine and not tyrosine
kinases, the dual-specificity MKKs most likely represent the
genistein-sensitive step in the signaling pathway of PC. However, it
should be noted that it has been suggested that anisomycin may
stimulate the p38 MAPK and JNK pathways by the ribotoxic stress
response rather than through a direct effect on the MKK protein
itself.55 If that were the case, then a
genistein-sensitive protein-tyrosine kinase could possibly exist
somewhere between the ribosome and the MKK and not necessarily at the
MKK.
The present study shows only that MAPKAPK2 activity is highly correlated with the protection of ischemic PC but does not actually prove a role for this kinase, because there is no way to block MAPKAPK2 in these hearts. There are several inhibitors of p38 MAPK, including SB 203580,38 which can effectively block protection in our cell model of ischemic PC without having an effect on nonpreconditioned cells.6 However, Armstrong et al4 reported that SB 203580 promoted injury in nonpreconditioned cells, whereas another group reported that SB 203580 actually protected cardiac myocytes.27 Most recently, SB 203580 has been found to selectively block the anti-infarct effect of PC in isolated rat hearts,53 and this blockade occurred only when SB 203580 was present during the prolonged ischemic period (Derek M. Yellon, personal communication, September 1999).
It was impossible to measure infarct size in those hearts that were being biopsied. However, it has been demonstrated repeatedly that pretreatment with a 5-minute period of ischemia, 500 nmol/L PIA, or 50 ng/mL anisomycin can precondition the isolated rabbit heart against infarction.26 35 56 Furthermore, 100 µmol/L SPT completely abolishes the anti-infarct effect of ischemic PC in the rabbit heart.33 34
Among other effects, MAPKAPK2 phosphorylates the small heat shock protein HSP27,16 an important regulator of actin dynamics. Overexpression of HSP27 confers protection against ischemia in rat neonatal myocytes.57 Furthermore, activation of this pathway prevents oxidative stress- and cytochalasin D–induced fragmentation of actin filaments and preserves cell viability.21 22 As prolonged ischemia is known to cause cytoskeletal disruption,58 activation of p38 MAPK and MAPKAPK2 could contribute to the protective action of ischemic PC by maintaining the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton. Of course, the identity of the end-effector of protection is actively being pursued, and the KATP channel is a strong candidate.59 There may be a connection between the actin cytoskeleton and KATP channels.60
In summary, the present study reveals that both ischemic and pharmacological PC induce strong activation of MAPKAPK2, but not JNK, during the prolonged ischemic period. Furthermore, that activation of MAPKAPK2 by ischemic PC could be blocked with an adenosine receptor antagonist. These data indicate that activation of MAPKAPK2, which is immediately downstream of p38 MAPK, is highly correlated with PC’s protection.
Received September 13, 1999; accepted October 27, 1999.
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T. M. Vondriska, J. B. Klein, and P. Ping Use of functional proteomics to investigate PKC{epsilon}-mediated cardioprotection: the signaling module hypothesis Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, April 1, 2001; 280(4): H1434 - H1441. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Pass, Y. Zheng, W. B. Wead, J. Zhang, R. C. X. Li, R. Bolli, and P. Ping PKC{epsilon} activation induces dichotomous cardiac phenotypes and modulates PKC{epsilon}-RACK interactions and RACK expression Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, March 1, 2001; 280(3): H946 - H955. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Sheikh, D. P. Sontag, R. R. Fandrich, E. Kardami, and P. A. Cattini Overexpression of FGF-2 increases cardiac myocyte viability after injury in isolated mouse hearts Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, March 1, 2001; 280(3): H1039 - H1050. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Sanada, M. Kitakaze, P. J. Papst, K. Hatanaka, H. Asanuma, T. Aki, Y. Shinozaki, H. Ogita, K. Node, S. Takashima, et al. Role of Phasic Dynamism of p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Activation in Ischemic Preconditioning of the Canine Heart Circ. Res., February 2, 2001; 88(2): 175 - 180. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Schneider, W. Chen, J. Hou, C. Steenbergen, and E. Murphy Inhibition of p38 MAPK {alpha}/{beta} reduces ischemic injury and does not block protective effects of preconditioning Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, February 1, 2001; 280(2): H499 - H508. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. T. SAURIN, J. L. MARTIN, R. J. HEADS, C. FOLEY, J. W. MOCKRIDGE, M. J. WRIGHT, Y. WANG, and M. S. MARBER The role of differential activation of p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase in preconditioned ventricular myocytes FASEB J, November 1, 2000; 14(14): 2237 - 2246. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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R. C. X. Li, P. Ping, J. Zhang, W. B. Wead, X. Cao, J. Gao, Y. Zheng, S. Huang, J. Han, and R. Bolli PKCepsilon modulates NF-kappa B and AP-1 via mitogen-activated protein kinases in adult rabbit cardiomyocytes Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2000; 279(4): H1679 - H1689. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-i. Abe, C. P. Baines, and B. C. Berk Role of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases in Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury : The Good and the Bad Circ. Res., March 31, 2000; 86(6): 607 - 609. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. M. Park, A. Chen, and J. V. Bonventre Prevention of Kidney Ischemia/Reperfusion-induced Functional Injury and JNK, p38, and MAPK Kinase Activation by Remote Ischemic Pretreatment J. Biol. Chem., April 6, 2001; 276(15): 11870 - 11876. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Stephanou, T. M. Scarabelli, B. K. Brar, Y. Nakanishi, M. Matsumura, R. A. Knight, and D. S. Latchman Induction of Apoptosis and Fas Receptor/Fas Ligand Expression by Ischemia/Reperfusion in Cardiac Myocytes Requires Serine 727 of the STAT-1 Transcription Factor but Not Tyrosine 701 J. Biol. Chem., July 20, 2001; 276(30): 28340 - 28347. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. V. Cohen, X.-M. Yang, G. S. Liu, G. Heusch, and J. M. Downey Acetylcholine, Bradykinin, Opioids, and Phenylephrine, but not Adenosine, Trigger Preconditioning by Generating Free Radicals and Opening Mitochondrial KATP Channels Circ. Res., August 3, 2001; 89(3): 273 - 278. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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