© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Cellular Biology |
Overexpression of Human Catalase Inhibits Proliferation and Promotes Apoptosis in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells
From the Departments of Surgery (M.R.B.), Internal Medicine (F.J.M., W.-G.L., J.D.M., P.C., A.A.S., N.L.W.), Anatomy and Cell Biology (J.F.E.), and Biochemistry (A.N.E., X.F., A.A.S.), and Radiation Research Laboratory (L.W.O.), University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa; Institute for Human Gene Therapy (R.M.Z.), University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pa; and Department of Surgery (R.M.Z.), University of Edinburgh, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh, UK.
Correspondence to Dr Neal L. Weintraub, Department of Internal Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, E-329GH, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA 52242. E-mail neal-weintraub{at}uiowa.edu
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Abstract—The role of reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide anions (O2·-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), in modulating vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and viability is controversial. To investigate the role of endogenously produced H2O2, rat aortic smooth muscle cells were infected with adenoviral vectors containing cDNA for human catalase (AdCat) or a control gene, ß-galactosidase (AdLacZ). Infection with AdCat resulted in dose-dependent increases in intracellular catalase protein, which was predominantly localized to peroxisomes. After infection with 100 multiplicity of infection (MOI) of AdCat, cellular catalase activity was increased by 50- to 100-fold, and intracellular H2O2 concentration was reduced, as compared with control. Infection with AdCat reduced [3H]thymidine uptake, an index of DNA synthesis, in cells maintained in medium supplemented with 2% serum (0.37±0.09 disintegrations per minute per cell [AdLacZ] versus 0.22±0.08 disintegrations per minute per cell [AdCat], P<0.05). Five days after infection with 100 MOI of AdCat, cell numbers were reduced as compared with noninfected or AdLacZ-infected cells (157 780±8413 [AdCat], P<0.05 versus 233 700±3032 [noninfected] or 222 410±5332 [AdLacZ]). Furthermore, the number of apoptotic cells was increased 5-fold after infection with 100 MOI of AdCat as compared with control. Infection with AdCat resulted in induction of cyclooxygenase (COX)–2, and treatment with a COX-2 inhibitor overcame the AdCat-induced reduction in cell numbers. These findings indicate that overexpression of catalase inhibited smooth muscle proliferation while increasing the rate of apoptosis, possibly through a COX-2–dependent mechanism. Our results suggest that endogenously produced H2O2 importantly modulates survival and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells.
Key Words: catalase • apoptosis • vascular smooth muscle cell • cell proliferation • hydrogen peroxide
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Introduction |
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Proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells is an important contributing factor in the pathophysiology of hypertension and atherosclerosis, as well as in coronary artery restenosis after angioplasty and stent placement.1 2 However, the factors that induce proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, which normally exist in the arterial wall in a state of quiescence, are unknown.3 Recently, it has been reported that reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide anions (O2·-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), are capable of stimulating vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.4 5 These oxidants were shown to be rapidly produced by smooth muscle cells after exposure to platelet-derived growth factor or angiotensin II, factors that stimulate smooth muscle cell growth.5 6 In addition, the production of reactive oxygen species in the blood vessel wall is enhanced in experimental models of hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes, and balloon injury to the coronary arteries.7 8 9 10 Moreover, in angiotensin II–induced hypertension, excess free radical production was predominantly localized to the media.11 These studies suggest that overproduction of reactive oxygen species could represent a common mechanism whereby diseases that affect the arterial wall promote vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.
Recently, Tsai et al12 observed that treatment with the antioxidant compounds pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) reduced viability and induced apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells, but not in endothelial cells. These findings raise the possibility that reactive oxygen species modulate not only proliferation but also survival of vascular smooth muscle cells. However, because the antioxidant compounds that were used possess numerous actions, definitive conclusions about the role of specific reactive oxygen species cannot be drawn. Moreover, others have reported that administration of reactive oxygen species induced apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells.13 14 The findings of the latter 2 studies are most likely not related simply to the amount of reactive oxygen species applied, given that even low concentrations of H2O2 produced apoptosis rather than proliferation. Thus, the precise role of reactive oxygen species in smooth muscle cell proliferation and apoptosis remains to be definitively established.
In this study, we examined the role of endogenously produced H2O2 in smooth muscle cell proliferation and apoptosis in rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) by infecting the cells with an adenoviral vector encoding the gene for human catalase. We chose to examine H2O2, because the studies by Rao and Berk4 and Sundaresan et al5 specifically implicated this substance as an important factor in smooth muscle cell signal transduction. Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer was used, because this approach results in the overexpression of human catalase within the cells, thereby obviating concerns regarding the purity of the enzyme preparation or fluctuations in intracellular catalase activity caused by variability in the transport of catalase protein into the cells. Our results indicate that overexpression of catalase results in reduction in the intracellular H2O2 concentration, inhibition of smooth muscle cell DNA synthesis and proliferation, and induction of apoptosis. These findings support the hypothesis that endogenously produced H2O2 may play a fundamental role in smooth muscle cell proliferation and survival.
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Materials and Methods |
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DMEM, MEM nonessential amino acid, MEM vitamin solution, Tween 20, tetramethoxypropane, and catalase were obtained from Sigma. FCS was purchased from HyClone Laboratories, and gentamicin was obtained from Schering Corp. M-199 medium, HEPES, trypsin, and L-glutamine were obtained from Sigma and prepared for use by the University of Iowa Cancer Center. 2',7'-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), 5- (and 6)-carboxyl-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (carboxyl–DCFH-DA), and dihydroethidium (HE) were obtained from Molecular Probes. Rabbit anti-human erythrocyte catalase (IgG fraction) was purchased from Athens Research and Technology, Inc, and rabbit polyclonal anti-cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 antibody was purchased from Cayman Chemical Co. The enhanced chemiluminescence Western blotting analysis system was purchased from Amersham Life Science, and the in situ apoptosis detection kit was purchased from Oncor.
Cell Culture
RASMCs were prepared from 3-month-old Sprague-Dawley rats as
previously described.15 The cells, which stained
positively for smooth muscle 
-actin but did not take up
acetylated low-density lipoprotein, were grown in DMEM
supplemented with 10% FCS, MEM nonessential amino acids, MEM vitamin
solution, 2 mmol/L L-glutamate, 50 µmol/L
gentamicin, and 15 mmol/L HEPES, in a humidified atmosphere
containing 5% CO2 at 37°C. Stocks were
subcultured at subconfluence by trypsinization. All experiments were
performed on cells between passages 8 and 20 grown to 90% to 95%
confluence in 12-well plates, T-150 flasks, or
100-mm3 dishes.
Infection of Smooth Muscle Cells With Adenoviral Vectors Containing
cDNA for Human Catalase
Initially, cDNA constructs coding for human catalase were
generated by PCR from pCAT41 (American Type Culture Collection) with
catalase-specific primers harboring restriction sites for direct
cloning into the adenoviral construct, pAdCMV link, containing the
cytomegalovirus promoter/enhancer element and simian virus 40
polyadenylation signal. PCR-generated clones were screened for catalase
activity by transient infection before generation of adenoviral
constructs. Recombinant viruses were generated by coinfection of
NheI-cut pAd plasmid with ClaI-cut Ad5.dl7001 (E3
deleted) viral DNA into 293 cells, which provide the E1A gene
product necessary for viral replication during transfer.
After infection, plates were overlaid with agar, and initial plaques
were harvested, amplified, and screened for enzymatic activity.
Adenovirus harboring the LacZ gene (AdLacZ) coding for the
bacterial enzyme ß-galactosidase was used as a
control.16
Virus possessing catalase enzymatic activity (designated
AdCat) was plaque purified 3 times and amplified in 293
cells. Purified high-titer stocks of recombinant adenovirus were
generated by 2 sequential rounds of CsCl2
banding. Viral titers were checked by plaque assays on 293 cells and
demonstrated a particle:plaque-forming unit ratio of 
20:1.
In initial studies, subconfluent smooth muscle cells were incubated with 100 multiplicity of infection (MOI) of AdLacZ or vehicle (3% sucrose in PBS solution) in serum-free DMEM. After 3 hours, the medium was replaced with 2% FCS-DMEM, and the incubation was continued for an additional 22 to 45 hours. The efficiency of gene transfer was then examined by histochemical staining for ß-galactosidase, as described previously.16 Under these conditions, only 3±0.6% (n=6) of the AdLacZ-infected cells stained positively for ß-galactosidase, suggesting a low efficiency of gene transfer. In subsequent incubations, the adenovirus was premixed with a cationic polymer (poly-L-lysine, 250 molecules/adenoviral particle), which was recently reported by Fasbender et al17 to improve the efficiency of adenovirus-mediated gene transfer. Forty-eight hours after exposure to 100 MOI of AdLacZ premixed with poly-L-lysine, 49±6.0% (n=4) of the cells stained positively for ß-galactosidase, indicating marked improvement in gene transfer efficiency. When cells were infected with 300 MOI of AdLacZ premixed with poly-L-lysine, >95% of the cells stained positively for ß-galactosidase. Consequently, all incubations (including vehicle controls) described in this study were conducted in the presence of poly-L-lysine.
Western Blot Analysis
Cells were infected with adenovirus as described above and then
sonicated in 0.05 mol/L potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.8) on ice with
three 30-second bursts, using a Vibra Cell sonicator (Sonics and
Materials, Inc) at 10% output and 80% duty cycle. Protein
concentrations were measured using a Bio-Rad protein assay with BSA as
the standard. Samples were denatured with SDS loading buffer at 95°C
for 5 minutes and then separated on an SDS-12% polyacrylamide
gel with a 4% stacking gel in SDS-Tris-glycine running buffer. The
protein was electrophoretically transferred to a nitrocellulose
membrane, which was then blocked with 5% (wt/vol) nonfat milk in TTBS
buffer (0.02 mol/L Tris:0.15 mol/L NaCl buffer [pH 7.45] and 0.1%
Tween 20) for 1 hour at room temperature on an orbital shaker. The
membrane was then incubated with specific rabbit anti-human catalase
(1:1000) in TTBS buffer overnight at 3°C to 7°C. The use of this
antiserum, which does not cross-react with other antioxidant enzymes,
has been described previously.18 The blot was incubated
with horseradish peroxidase–conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG
(1:10 000, Boehringer Mannheim) for 1 hour at room
temperature. The anti-catalase antibody was then detected using the
enhanced chemiluminescence detection system and exposed to x-ray film.
Relative areas of each blot were determined by densitometry.
In other experiments, cells were infected with adenoviral vectors as described above, and 48 hours later, the protein was harvested and subjected to Western blotting using an antibody to COX-2 (1:1000), as described previously.19
Immunohistochemical Localization of Catalase Protein
After adenoviral infection, cells were washed with PBS and fixed
with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L phosphate
buffer, pH 7.2, for 30 minutes at room temperature. The cells were then
incubated with rabbit anti-human catalase (1:200 dilution in PBS/0.5%
Triton X-100) for 3 hours at room temperature and processed for
immunogold immunohistochemistry as previously
described.20 21 Cells stained with anti-catalase antibody
were photographed at x10 500 magnification utilizing a Hitachi H-7000
TEM microscope and examined for the presence of immunogold beads. No
immunogold bead labeling was detected in control experiments performed
in the absence of exposure to the primary or secondary antibody (not
shown).
To investigate the persistence of catalase overexpression, confluent cells were infected with 30 or 100 MOI of AdCat of AdLacZ and maintained in medium containing 2% serum. Two or 7 days after gene transfer, the cells were fixed as described above, incubated with anti-catalase antibody conjugated with FITC, and then examined by phase-contrast and confocal laser scanning microscopy at x40. Images from 3 randomly selected fields containing confluent cells were collected using a 512x512–pixel format and archived for subsequent analysis. Fluorescence intensity was quantified utilizing Confocal Assistant, version 3.10, and NIH Image: Use in Fluorescence and Confocal Microscopy (version 2.0). The relative fluorescence intensity was calculated by dividing the total fluorescence intensity in the measuring field by the percentage of the field occupied by fluorescent cells.
Determination of Antioxidant Enzyme Activity
Cell extracts were prepared by sonication, and protein
determination was performed as described above. Catalase activity was
measured as described previously.22 23 Briefly, cell
extracts (200 to 400 µg) were added to 3 mL of 10 mmol/L
H2O2 in 50 mmol/L
potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), and disappearance of
H2O2 was immediately
measured at 240 nm for 30 seconds. Catalase activity was expressed in
k units.
Assessment of Intracellular Reactive Oxygen Species
Intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species was detected
using the oxidant-sensitive probes DCFH-DA and HE, and the
oxidant-insensitive analog of DCFH-DA,
carboxyl–DCFH-DA.24 25 26 27 DCFH-DA is distributed throughout
the cell and fluoresces green when oxidized by
H2O2, whereas HE localizes
to the nucleus and fluoresces red when oxidized by
O2·-.
Simultaneous localization of both oxidized dyes within a
cell produces an orange to yellow fluorescence. In contrast,
the fluorescence of carboxyl–DCFH-DA is unaffected by
H2O2 or
O2·-. DCFH-DA and HE are
not absolutely specific for a single substrate, but they
represent the best available reagents for measuring
intracellular reactive oxygen species. Cells were grown to
subconfluence in 100-mm3 dishes and infected with
adenoviral vectors as described previously. Forty-eight hours later,
the cells were washed and incubated for 30 minutes with HE (5
µmol/L) and DCFH-DA (10 µmol/L), and after the cells were
rinsed, fluorescence was detected by confocal laser scanning
microscopy. Excitation and emission wavelengths were 488 and 525 nm,
respectively, for DCFH-DA and 488 and 610, respectively, for HE. Images
were collected and analyzed using the Confocal Assistant
program, as described above. In separate experiments, infected cells
were prepared as described above, incubated with 10 µmol/L
DCFH-DA or carboxyl–DCFH-DA, and analyzed by confocal laser
scanning microscopy, using excitation and emission wavelengths of 488
and 525 nm, respectively.
Assessment of DNA Synthesis and Cell Numbers
To examine cellular DNA synthesis, near-confluent RASMCs were
placed in DMEM supplemented with 2% FCS for 24 hours, after which they
were infected with various MOI of AdCat or AdLacZ
for 3 hours followed by washing and incubation in 2% FCS-DMEM. After
45 hours, the medium was replaced with fresh serum-free medium or
medium containing 2% FCS; 24 hours later,
[3H]thymidine was added, and the incubation was
continued for an additional 5 hours. This medium was removed, and the
cells were washed with cold PBS, incubated in 20% trichloroacetic acid
for 30 minutes, and then washed and incubated in 0.25N NaOH for 12
hours. The cells were then lysed by vortexing and analyzed for
radioactivity by liquid scintillation counting. All experiments were
performed at least 2 times in triplicate in 12-well plates, and the
thymidine uptake data are expressed as disintegrations per minute per
cell.
Cell numbers were obtained in experiments performed as described above, with the exception that after gene transfer, cells were incubated in medium containing 0%, 2%, or 4% FCS, which was replaced with fresh medium every other day. At the indicated times, the cells were harvested by trypsinization and counted in a hemocytometer.
Determination of Apoptosis
The terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase–mediated
dUTP-digoxigenin nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay for detecting DNA
fragmentation was performed using a commercially available kit (ApopTag
Plus, Oncor).13 Briefly, the samples were preincubated
with equilibration buffer for 5 minutes and subsequently incubated with
terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase in the presence of
digoxigenin-conjugated dUTP for 1 hour at 37°C. The reaction was
terminated by incubating the samples in stopping buffer for 30 minutes.
After 3 rinses with PBS, the fluorescein-labeled
anti-digoxigenin antibody was applied for 30 minutes, and the samples
were rinsed 3 times with PBS. The samples were then stained, mounted
with Oncor propidium iodide/antifade, and examined by laser
confocal microscopy.
The presence of DNA laddering was determined by agarose gel
electrophoresis, as modified according to Rosl.28 After
adenoviral infection of RASMCs, DNA was extracted from the cells by
DNAzol (GIBCO-BRL). One microgram of DNA was treated with 5 units of
Klenow polymerase using 0.5 µCi of
[-32P]dCTP in the presence of 10 mmol/L
Tris:HCl, pH 7.5, and 5 mmol/L MgCl2. The
reaction was incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature and
terminated with the addition of 10 mmol/L EDTA. The unincorporated
nucleotides were removed by MicroSpin G-50 columns
(Amersham Life Science). The incorporated nucleotides were
applied on a 1.8% agarose gel and electrophoresed for 2 hours at 100
V. After drying the gel on 3MM Whatman paper, the filter was
exposed for autoradiography.
Statistical Analyses
All data are expressed as mean±SEM. Differences between mean
values of 2 groups were analyzed by Student t tests.
Differences between mean values of multiple groups were
analyzed by 1-way ANOVA with a Newman-Keuls post hoc
analysis. Probability values of 0.05 or less were considered to
be statistically significant.
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Results |
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Overexpression of Human Catalase in RASMCs
To examine the capacity of AdCat to enhance the expression and activity of catalase protein in RASMCs, the cells were infected with varying MOI of AdCat or a control virus, AdLacZ. After 48 hours, the incubation medium was removed, and cell lysates were prepared and subjected to Western blot analysis using a specific antibody against human catalase. A single 60-kDa band corresponding to authentic human catalase was detected in lysates prepared from AdCat-infected cells, but not AdLacZ-infected cells (Figure 1
). Increasing amounts of intracellular
catalase protein were detected after infection with increasing MOI of
AdCat, indicating a dose-dependent response.
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To investigate the intracellular location of the transduced catalase
protein, noninfected cells or cells infected with 100 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat were processed for immunogold
immunohistochemical analysis with an anti-human catalase
antibody and then examined by electron microscopy. A marked increase in
immunogold bead labeling was observed in AdCat-infected
cells, with virtually all of the labeling colocalizing with peroxisomes
(Figure 2). In contrast, the
AdLacZ-infected cells and noninfected cells (not shown)
exhibited minimal immunogold bead labeling.
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To determine whether the levels of transduced catalase persisted up to
1 week after adenovirus-mediated gene transfer, cells were infected
with 30 or 100 MOI of AdLacZ or AdCat and then
maintained in medium supplemented with 2% FCS. After 2 or 7 days, the
cells were processed for confocal laser microscopy using an
FITC-conjugated anti-catalase antibody. Two days after gene transfer,
marked fluorescence was detected in cells infected with 30 or
100 MOI of AdCat, but not AdLacZ (Figure 3). Seven days after gene transfer, the
levels of fluorescence tended to be greater in cells infected
with either 30 or 100 MOI of AdCat as compared with the
corresponding 2-day values, although the differences did not achieve
statistical significance. These findings suggest that the levels of
transduced catalase remained relatively constant for at least 7 days
after adenoviral infection.
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To confirm that the transduced catalase protein was functional, lysates prepared from control or AdLacZ- or AdCat-infected cells were assayed for catalase activity. Cells infected with 100 MOI of AdCat exhibited 50- to 100-fold increases in total cellular catalase activity as compared with noninfected cells or cells infected with 100 MOI of AdLacZ (42 070±16 119 k/g protein [AdCat], P<0.05 versus 318±57 k/g protein [noninfected] or 783±17 k/gm protein [AdLacZ], n=3 to 4 per group). Infection with 300 MOI of AdCat resulted in profound reductions in cell numbers (see below); consequently, we were unable to harvest sufficient amounts of protein from these cells to perform the catalase activity assay. Taken together, these results suggest that infection with AdCat greatly increased the amount of functional catalase protein contained within RASMC peroxisomes.
Effects of Catalase Overexpression on Intracellular Reactive
Oxygen Species
We next investigated whether overexpression of catalase reduced
the intracellular concentration of reactive oxygen species. Reactive
oxygen species were compared among the 3 groups (noninfected cells and
cells infected with either 100 MOI of AdLacZ or
AdCat) using the oxidant-sensitive probes DCFH-DA and HE.
Figure 4 shows that the green
fluorescence of DCFH-DA was markedly reduced by infection with
100 MOI of AdCat (right panel) as compared with 100 MOI of
AdLacZ (middle panel) or noninfected cells (left panel),
suggesting that overexpression of catalase reduced the intracellular
H2O2 concentration (Table).
In contrast, infection with AdCat did not affect the red
fluorescence of HE, suggesting that catalase transduction did
not significantly alter the intracellular
O2·- concentration
(Table). Moreover, fluorescence of carboxyl–DCFH-DA was
similar in AdCat- and AdLacZ-infected cells,
suggesting that infection with AdCat did not reduce
fluorescence of DCFH-DA by altering uptake,
metabolism, or efflux of the probe (data not shown).
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Effects of Catalase Overexpression on Cellular
Proliferation
To determine whether infection with AdCat inhibited
proliferation of RASMCs, cells were infected with 100 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat and incubated in 2% FCS-DMEM for
48 hours. The medium was then replaced with fresh serum-free medium or
medium containing 2% FCS, and [3H]thymidine
uptake was determined. Cells infected with AdCat, whether
maintained in serum-free DMEM (Figure 5, top) or 2% FCS-DMEM (Figure 5, bottom), exhibited reduced
[3H]thymidine uptake as compared with
noninfected or AdLacZ-infected cells, indicating a decreased
rate of DNA synthesis.
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In separate experiments, confluent cells were infected with 100 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat as described above. These cells,
as well as noninfected cells, were then placed in 2% FCS-DMEM for 2 or
5 days, after which they were harvested by trypsinization and counted.
Two days after gene transfer, there were no differences in cell numbers
among any of the groups (Figure 6, top).
In noninfected or in AdLacZ-infected cells, the numbers of
cells present 5 days after gene transfer were markedly increased
over the corresponding 2-day values, indicating cellular proliferation.
In AdCat-infected cells, the number of cells present 5
days after gene transfer was reduced compared with either noninfected
or AdLacZ-infected cells, and, in fact, did not differ from
the corresponding 2-day value.
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In additional experiments, cells were infected with 30 to 300 MOI of
AdCat or, as a control, AdLacZ. After gene
transfer, the cells were maintained in 4% FCS-DMEM for 2 or 6 days,
after which they were harvested and counted. Once again, 2 days after
gene transfer, there were no significant differences in cell number
among any of the groups (data not shown). In the AdLacZ
group, the number of cells present 6 days after gene transfer was
more than twice the 2-day value (Figure 6
, bottom). At this
time, cells infected with AdCat exhibited dose-dependent
reductions in cell numbers, with only the 30-MOI value exceeding that
of the 2-day AdLacZ value. Taken together, these results
suggest that overexpression of catalase inhibited RASMC
proliferation.
Effects of Catalase Overexpression on Apoptosis
To test whether overexpression of catalase increased the
rate of apoptotic cell death in RASMCs, near-confluent cells
were infected with 100 MOI of either AdLacZ or
AdCat, or treated with vehicle, and then maintained in 2%
FCS-DMEM as described previously. After 48 hours, the TUNEL assay was
performed. The nuclei of noninfected RASMCs (Figure 7A) and AdLacZ-infected
RASMCs (Figure 7B) typically were elliptically shaped and
stained by propidium iodine (red) but were not concomitantly labeled by
TUNEL. However, condensed nuclei labeled by TUNEL (green) were
frequently observed in AdCat-infected RASMCs (Figure 7C), consistent with enhanced apoptosis. The
number of TUNEL-labeled nuclei in AdCat-infected cells was
5-fold greater than in AdLacZ-infected or noninfected cells
(Figure 7D).
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In separate experiments, cells were infected with 300 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat and maintained in 2% FCS-DMEM
for 48 hours, after which the TUNEL assay was performed. Under these
conditions, 13% of the AdCat-infected cells were TUNEL
positive, as compared with 3% of the AdLacZ-infected cells
(Figure 8, top). To confirm the enhanced
apoptosis, agarose gel electrophoresis was used to examine for
DNA laddering, a sign of fragmentation of nuclear DNA into
oligonucleosomal subunits. Substantial DNA laddering was detected in
cells infected with AdCat, whereas little or no laddering
was detected in noninfected or AdLacZ-infected cells (Figure 8, bottom).
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Taken together, these results suggest that overexpression of catalase resulted in an increased frequency of apoptotic cells in populations of smooth muscle cells.
Effects of Gene Transfer of Catalase on Expression of
COX-2
Chen et al29 reported that incubation of RASMCs with
catalase protein resulted in rapid and sustained induction of COX-2. To
investigate whether COX-2 was also induced in the RASMCs after gene
transfer of catalase, noninfected cells or cells infected 100 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat were maintained in 2% FCS-DMEM
for 48 hours. Cell lysates were then prepared, and Western blotting was
performed using a specific antibody for COX-2. In cells infected with
AdCat, the expression of COX-2 protein was markedly
increased as compared with noninfected cells or cells infected with
AdLacZ (Figure 9, top).
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To address whether induction of COX-2 might be involved in the
suppression of cell proliferation after gene transfer of catalase,
cells were pretreated with vehicle or a selective inhibitor
of COX-2, NS-398,30 and then infected with 100 MOI of
AdLacZ or AdCat. Cells were maintained in 2%
FCS-DMEM in the continuous presence of vehicle or NS-398 for 7 days,
after which they were harvested and counted. In
AdLacZ-infected cells, treatment with NS-398 did not
significantly alter cell numbers as compared with vehicle (Figure 9, bottom). However, treatment with NS-398 overcame the
reduction in cell numbers subsequent to gene transfer of catalase.
Similar results were obtained in a separate experiment performed as
described above but continued for 5 days after gene transfer
(AdLacZ, 194070±13950 [vehicle] versus 218 700±6160
[NS-398] cells/mm3, P>0.05;
AdCat, 100 930±9530 [vehicle] versus 154 070±3910
[NS-398] cells/mm3, P<0.05).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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We have shown that infection of RASMCs with an adenoviral vector containing the cDNA for human catalase resulted in overexpression of catalase within cellular peroxisomes, reduction in the intracellular concentration of prooxidants (presumably H2O2), suppression of DNA synthesis and cell proliferation, and induction of apoptotic cell death. These findings suggest an important role for endogenously produced H2O2 in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell growth and apoptosis.
Reactive oxygen species participate in numerous intracellular signaling processes and have been suggested to promote tumor cell proliferation.31 32 Studies also indicate that O2·- and H2O2 can stimulate proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells.4 Furthermore, Sundaresan et al5 reported that in RASMCs, platelet-derived growth factor stimulated H2O2 production and DNA synthesis, and that both of these responses were blocked by preincubating the cells with catalase, which markedly increased intracellular catalase activity. This suggests that the levels of endogenous antioxidant enzymes could importantly influence the rate of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.
Using adenovirus-mediated gene transfer, we were able to express high levels of catalase within the peroxisomes, the site where intracellular catalase normally is located within cells.33 Moreover, immunofluorescence studies indicated that the levels of transduced catalase remained relatively constant for up to 7 days after adenoviral infection. The expressed catalase was functional, as demonstrated by the 50- to 100- fold increase in cellular catalase activity after infection with 100 MOI of AdCat. This magnitude of increase in catalase activity might, on first consideration, appear to be nonphysiological. However, catalase activity in cultured cells has been reported to be up to 50-fold less than in freshly harvested tissue.34 35 Thus, the levels of intracellular catalase achieved in the present study likely represent moderate, physiologically relevant increases compared with the levels ordinarily present in vivo.
Experiments with oxidant-sensitive probes suggested that overexpression of catalase led to a reduction in the intracellular H2O2 concentration but did not affect the concentration of O2·-. The rate of cellular proliferation, determined by assessing [3H]thymidine incorporation and cell numbers, was reduced after gene transfer of catalase. These latter experiments were performed in confluent, unstimulated smooth muscle cells, as well as in cells maintained in 2% or 4% FCS-DMEM. Under these conditions, the rate of cell proliferation is low, similar to that which occurs in the arterial wall in vivo.3 Thus, our results support the hypothesis that intracellular H2O2 may play a fundamental role in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.
Very recently, Chen et al29 reported that incubation of smooth muscle cells with catalase resulted in rapid induction of COX-2 mRNA and protein expression and increased production of prostaglandins. In the present study, gene transfer of catalase also resulted in induction of COX-2 protein. There are a number of potential mechanisms by which the expression and/or activity of COX-2 could be enhanced by catalase. For example, by reducing ROS levels, catalase may increase the activity of adenosine-uridine binding factor, which, in turn, may promote stabilization of COX-2 mRNA.36 Also, COX is prone to autoinactivation caused by formation of ROS during enzymatic activity, a process that could be abrogated by antioxidant enzymes.37 Moreover, catalase could enhance COX activity by supplying O2, a substrate for COX-mediated endoperoxide synthesis.29 Enhanced induction and/or activity of COX-2 could modulate cell growth, perhaps by increasing the formation of PGE2, a potent inhibitor of smooth muscle proliferation.19 38 In keeping with this possibility, treatment with a COX-2 inhibitor overcame the reduction in cell numbers subsequent to infection with AdCat. Further studies are required to establish the precise role of COX-2 in catalase-induced suppression of smooth muscle cell proliferation.
Besides reducing the rate of cell proliferation, infection with AdCat increased the rate of RASMC apoptosis. Recently, Tsai et al12 reported that incubation of vascular smooth muscle cells with the antioxidant PDTC or NAC resulted in dose-dependent reductions in cell viability and enhancement in the rate of apoptosis, suggesting that endogenous reactive oxygen species may modulate survival of smooth muscle cells. Our study supports this notion and suggests a particularly important role for H2O2, given that the enhanced rate of apoptosis after catalase overexpression was observed in conjunction with a reduction in the intracellular concentration of H2O2 but not O2·-. The molecular mechanisms whereby H2O2 prevents vascular smooth muscle cells from becoming apoptotic remain to be determined.
Interestingly, Rao and Berk4 reported that H2O2 did not stimulate proliferation of endothelial cells, and Tsai et al12 reported that the antioxidants PDTC and NAC did not reduce endothelial cell viability. Thus, in contrast to its actions in smooth muscle cells, H2O2 does not appear to fundamentally regulate endothelial cell proliferation or survival. Antioxidant therapy might therefore be expected to selectively inhibit vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation without adversely affecting the endothelium. This would help to explain the beneficial effects of antioxidant treatment in preventing coronary restenosis after balloon angioplasty, a condition in which smooth muscle cell proliferation has been suggested to play an integral role.2 39
While the findings of this study, as well as those by Rao and Berk,4 indicate that H2O2 stimulates smooth muscle cell proliferation, reports by other groups indicate that H2O2 can also induce apoptosis and/or promote vascular smooth muscle cell death.13 14 40 These apparently conflicting results could be related to differences in cell types, cell culture conditions, the amount or method of application of H2O2, the levels of endogenous antioxidant enzymes, or the rates of production of reactive oxygen species within the cells. Nevertheless, these studies collectively suggest that under certain conditions, H2O2 can promote either vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation or cell death, a paradox that underscores the importance of this reactive oxygen species to smooth muscle cell function.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants HL49264 (to A.A.S. and N.L.W.), DK 51315 (to J.F.E.), CA66081 (to A.A.S. and L.W.O.), and P01-CA66081P50 and DE-10758 (to L.W.O.), and by an American Heart Association Clinician-Scientist Award (to N.L.W.). We thank Dr Ram Sharma for helpful discussions and Dr Frank Longo for identification of peroxisomes by immunogold electron microscopy. We also thank Jean Ross for assistance with electron microscopy. Finally, we appreciate the assistance provided by the University of Iowa Gene Transfer Vector Core, which is supported in part by a trust from the Carver Foundation.
Received January 4, 1999; accepted June 28, 1999.
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