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(Circulation Research. 1999;85:147-153.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.

Original Contribution

Inhibition of Copper-Zinc Superoxide Dismutase Induces Cell Growth, Hypertrophic Phenotype, and Apoptosis in Neonatal Rat Cardiac Myocytes In Vitro

Deborah A. Siwik¹, John D. Tzortzis¹, David R. Pimental, Donny L.-F. Chang, Patrick J. Pagano, Krishna Singh, Douglas B. Sawyer, Wilson S. Colucci

From the Myocardial Biology Unit, Boston University School of Medicine, and Cardiovascular Division, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, Mass. Present address of P.J.P is Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Mich.

Correspondence to Wilson S. Colucci, MD, Cardiovascular Division, Boston University Medical Center, 88 East Newton St, Boston, MA 02118. E-mail wilson.colucci{at}bmc.org

	Abstract

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Abstract—Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathophysiology of myocardial failure. We tested the hypothesis that inhibition of endogenous antioxidant enzymes can regulate the phenotype of cardiac myocytes. Neonatal rat ventricular myocytes in vitro were exposed to diethyldithiocarbamic acid (DDC), an inhibitor of cytosolic (Cu, Zn) and extracellular superoxide dismutase (SOD). DDC inhibited SOD activity and increased intracellular superoxide in a concentration-dependent manner. A low concentration (1 µmol/L) of DDC stimulated myocyte growth, as demonstrated by increases in protein synthesis, cellular protein, prepro–atrial natriuretic peptide, and c-fos mRNAs and decreased sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ATPase mRNA. These actions were all inhibited by the superoxide scavenger Tiron (4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzene disulfonic acid). Higher concentrations of DDC (100 µmol/L) stimulated myocyte apoptosis, as evidenced by DNA laddering, characteristic nuclear morphology, in situ terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated nick end-labeling (TUNEL), and increased bax mRNA expression. DDC-stimulated apoptosis was inhibited by the SOD/catalase mimetic EUK-8. The growth and apoptotic effects of DDC were mimicked by superoxide generation with xanthine plus xanthine oxidase. Thus, increased intracellular superoxide resulting from inhibition of SOD causes activation of a growth program and apoptosis in cardiac myocytes. These findings support a role for oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of myocardial remodeling and failure.

Key Words: superoxide dismutase • superoxide • myocyte • hypertrophy • apoptosis

	Introduction

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Superoxide is a "foundation" radical that may lead to the formation of the reactive oxygen species hydrogen peroxide,¹ hydroxyl radical,² and peroxynitrite.³ Superoxide is produced intracellularly by electron leakage from mitochondria during oxidative phosphorylation and by activation of several cellular enzymes, including NADPH oxidases,⁴ cyclooxygenase, nitric oxide synthase,⁵ and xanthine oxidase. Antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and peroxidases protect cells by maintaining O₂^- and H₂O₂ at low levels.⁶

Studies in animal models suggest that a chronic increase in oxidative stress in the myocardium, possibly due to impairment of SOD and other antioxidant pathways, could contribute to myocardial remodeling and failure.^{7 8} Although the mechanism by which oxidative stress might cause myocardial remodeling is not clear, oxidative stress has been implicated as a mediator of both cell death⁹ and cell growth.^{10 11} Furthermore, Cheng et al¹² showed that mechanical stretch of papillary muscle increased superoxide and caused apoptosis and that both effects were inhibited by nitric oxide, leading to the suggestion that superoxide mediates stretch-induced apoptosis in cardiac myocytes.

We hypothesized that an increase in superoxide due to inhibition of SOD would affect the growth and survival of cardiac myocytes. To test this thesis, Cu, Zn SOD was inhibited in a graded manner with the copper chelator diethyldithiocarbamic acid (DDC)¹³ in ventricular myocytes cultured from neonatal rats.

	Materials and Methods

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Neonatal Rat Ventricular Myocytes (NRVMs)
NRVMs were prepared as previously described.¹⁴ Myocytes were plated at a density of 300 cells/mm² on 24-well plates (Costar), 12-mm-diameter coverslips in 24-well plates, or 35- or 100-mm dishes (Falcon) for 24 hours in DMEM (GIBCO) containing 7% (vol/vol) heat-inactivated FBS (GIBCO) and 1% (vol/vol) penicillin-streptomycin (GIBCO). The culture medium was changed to serum-free DMEM for 24 hours before exposure to experimental treatments. DDC (Sigma), alone or in combination with the nonenzymatic superoxide scavenger Tiron (4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzene disulfonic acid, Sigma)¹⁵ or the SOD/catalase mimetic EUK-8 (Eukarion),¹⁶ was added for 24 hours or as indicated. In other experiments, the combination of xanthine (500 µmol/L; Sigma) plus xanthine oxidase (0.1 mU/mL; Boehringer Mannheim), referred to as XXO, was added to cells. Control cells were treated with DMEM alone.

SOD Activity
SOD activity was measured by the inhibition of pyrogallol auto-oxidation.¹⁷ NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes were treated for 7 hours with DDC. The cells were trypsinized, centrifuged, and resuspended in the assay buffer containing 50 mmol/L Tris (pH 8.2) and 1 mmol/L diethyltriamine pentoacetic acid. The cells were sonicated and centrifuged at 800g for 5 minutes. Protein concentration in the supernatant was determined by Bradford assay against a BSA standard (Bio-Rad protein assay dye reagent concentrate). Pyrogallol (Sigma) auto-oxidation was measured as the rate of change of the absorbance at 420 nm over 5 minutes of 200 µmol/L pyrogallol, diluted from acidic stock into assay buffer, in the presence of 1200 U/mL catalase (Sigma).

Lucigenin-Enhanced Chemiluminescence
DDC-enhanced production of superoxide was measured in NRVMs plated on 35-mm dishes. DDC (1 µmol/L) was added to the medium for 24 hours before superoxide measurements. The medium was removed and replaced with physiological buffer (in mmol/L: NaCl 119, HEPES 20, KCl 4.6, MgSO₄ 1, Na₂HPO₄ 0.15, KH₂PO₄ 0.4, NaHCO₃ 5, CaCl₂ 1.2, and glucose 11.1, pH 7.4). Lucigenin (100 µmol/L; bis-N-methylacridinium nitrate, Sigma) was added to the dishes and allowed to equilibrate for 10 minutes at 37°C. Luminescence, measured with a Turner 20/20 luminometer, was integrated over 30-second intervals for a total of 5 minutes at room temperature. Background luminescence was determined in the presence of the nonenzymatic superoxide scavenger Tiron (1 mmol/L). Superoxide levels are reported as Tiron-inhibited arbitrary units per minute.¹⁸

Nitroblue Tetrazolium (NBT) Reduction
NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes were treated with DDC for 24 hours, and the medium was replaced with physiological buffer with NBT (100 µmol/L; Sigma) for 90 minutes. Cells were collected and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 12 000g, and the resulting pellet was resuspended in pyridine (100 µmol/L; Sigma). Formazan, the product of the reaction of superoxide with NBT, was extracted by heating the samples at 80°C for 90 minutes and was measured by absorbance at 540 nm. The quantity of formazan was calculated as NBT reduction=A · V÷(T · n · e · l), where A is the absorbance value at 540 nm, V is the volume of solution, T is the time period of NBT incubation, n is the number of cells, e is the extinction coefficient of formazan (0.72 mmol/L^-1 · mm^-1), and l is the length of the light path. Nonspecific NBT reduction was determined by addition of EUK-8 (100 µmol/L) at the time of DDC treatment. Superoxide levels are reported as EUK-8–inhibited NBT reduction. Tiron was not used in these experiments because it interferes with the solubility of NBT.¹⁹

Protein Synthesis
NRVMs were plated on 24-well plates, and [³H]leucine incorporation was determined as previously described.¹⁴ To account for possible changes in cell number with experimental treatment, cell number was determined in parallel plates as described below, and [³H]leucine incorporation is reported as dpm/1000 cells.

Protein Content
Total protein content was determined in 24-well plates by Bradford assay against a BSA standard. Cell number was determined in parallel plates as described below, and protein values are reported as µg protein/1000 cells.

Northern Hybridization
NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes were treated for 24 hours or as indicated. Total RNA isolations and Northern hybridizations with ³²P-labeled full-length cDNA of rat prepro–atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), rabbit sarcoplasmic-endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ ATPase (SERCA2), rat c-fos, or rat bax²⁰ were performed essentially as previously described.¹⁴ Blots were exposed to a phosphor screen for 2 to 3 hours and quantified with a phosphor imager (GS-363, Bio-Rad) or exposed to XOMAT-AR film (Kodak, Rochester, NY) overnight and quantified with an imaging densitometer (GS-700, Bio-Rad) using Molecular Analyst software (Bio-Rad). mRNA levels were normalized to 18S rRNA determined by reprobing blots with a ³²P-labeled oligonucleotide complementary to 18S rRNA.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Activity
NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes were treated as indicated. The activities of the extracellular signal–regulated kinases (ERK)-1/ERK2 (p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase) were measured as phosphorylation of myelin basic protein by immunoprecipitated ERK1/ERK2.²¹

Cell Number and Membrane Integrity
Cell number was determined in 24-well plates treated with DDC or XXO, with or without Tiron for 24 hours. An aliquot of the medium (including floating cells) was counted with a hemacytometer (Hausser). The number of adherent cells was determined by trypsinization (GIBCO) and subsequent counting with a hemacytometer. Cell membrane integrity was determined in NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes treated with DDC or XXO, with or without EUK-8, for 24 hours. The medium, containing floating cells, was removed and collected. Adherent cells were trypsinized and pooled with the corresponding floating cells. The cells were pelleted at 730g for 5 minutes and resuspended in PBS containing 0.04% (wt/vol) trypan blue (Sigma). An aliquot of the cell suspension, containing both adherent and floating cells, was counted with a hemacytometer, and the percentage of cells excluding dye was calculated.

DNA Laddering
NRVMs plated on 100-mm dishes were treated for 24 hours as indicated. The medium, containing floating cells, was removed and collected. Adherent cells were trypsinized and pooled with the corresponding floating cells. The cells were pelleted at 730g for 5 minutes, washed once with PBS, and then lysed on ice in buffer containing 10 mmol/L EDTA (pH 8.0), 10 mmol/L Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), and 0.5% (v/v) Triton X-100 for 30 minutes. Lysed cells were centrifuged at 16 000g for 20 minutes, and the supernatants were treated with 0.4 mg/mL RNase A for 30 minutes at 37°C, followed by 0.4 mg/mL proteinase K for 30 minutes at 37°C. The DNA was precipitated overnight in 1 mol/L NaCl and 50% isopropanol. The DNA was pelleted at 16 000g for 20 minutes, air-dried, and dissolved in 10 mmol/L Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) and 1 mmol/L EDTA (pH 8.0). The entire DNA sample for each treatment was electrophoresed on a 1.5% agarose gel with 40 mmol/L Tris-acetate and 2 mmol/L EDTA (pH 8.5). The DNA ladders were visualized with ethidium bromide and UV light, and DNA band sizes were estimated using DNA size markers (PCR Markers, Promega).

In Situ Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase–Mediated Nick End-Labeling of DNA Strand Breaks (TUNEL)
NRVMs plated on glass coverslips in 24-well dishes were treated for 24 hours as indicated. Cells were fixed in 3.7% formaldehyde for 30 minutes at room temperature and then permeabilized in 0.1% (vol/vol) Triton X-100 and 0.1% (wt/vol) sodium citrate for 30 minutes at 4°C. Coverslips were exposed to the TUNEL reaction mixture containing terminal deoxynucleotide transferase and fluorescein-labeled dUTP (In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit—Fluorescein, Boehringer Mannheim) for 1 hour in a humidified 37°C incubator, washed, and counterstained with Hoechst 33342 for 10 minutes at room temperature. Coverslips were mounted onto glass slides and visualized with an epifluorescent microscope. At least 100 total nuclei (Hoechst stained) were counted from each coverslip, and the number of TUNEL-positive cells for each field was determined. Slides were scored in a blinded fashion.

Statistical Analysis
All data are presented as mean±SEM. Statistical analysis used the Student t test or 1-way ANOVA with Bonferroni correction, as appropriate. A P value 0.05 was considered significant.

	Results

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DDC Inhibits SOD and Increases Superoxide Levels in a Concentration-Related Manner
The addition of DDC^{13 22} to cultures for 7 hours inhibited SOD activity in a concentration-dependent manner, reducing total cellular activity by 33±10% and 63±5% at 1 µmol/L and 1 mmol/L, respectively (Figure 1A). Exposure to DDC (1 µmol/L, 24 hours) increased superoxide levels by 162±13% as measured by lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence (Figure 1B) and by 43±5% as measured by NBT reduction (Figure 1C), which confirms that inhibition of Cu, Zn SOD causes a modest increase in superoxide levels.

View larger version (26K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. DDC inhibits SOD activity and increases basal superoxide levels in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. A, Myocytes were treated with DDC (1 µmol/L or 1 mmol/L) for 7 hours, and cytosolic proteins were prepared and tested for the ability to inhibit pyrogallol auto-oxidation as measured by absorbance at 420 nm. B and C, Myocytes were treated for 24 hours with DDC (1 µmol/L), and the increment in quenchable superoxide was measured by lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence (B) or NBT reduction (C). A through C, Data are mean±SEM from 3 experiments. *P0.05 vs control.

Inhibition of SOD Stimulates Myocyte Growth
Exposure to DDC for 24 hours increased protein synthesis, as measured by [³H]leucine incorporation, in a concentration-dependent manner with a maximum increase of 109±34% at 1 µmol/L (Figure 2A). Concomitant addition of the superoxide scavenger Tiron¹⁵ (100 µmol/L) with DDC (1 µmol/L) abolished the effect of DDC. DDC (24 hours) likewise increased cellular protein content in a concentration-dependent manner, and this effect was abolished by Tiron (Figure 2B). DDC (1 µmol/L) caused induction of c-fos mRNA (Figure 3A) and activation of ERK1/ERK2 (Figure 3B).

View larger version (26K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Inhibition of SOD increases protein synthesis and protein content. Myocytes were incubated with DDC (0.01 to 100 µmol/L), the superoxide scavenger Tiron (100 µmol/L), or both, for 24 hours. A, Protein synthesis as assessed by [3H]leucine incorporation. B, Net cellular protein content as measured by the Bradford method. Both [3H]leucine incorporation and protein content were normalized to cell number determined in parallel plates. A and B, Data are mean±SEM from 3 to 5 experiments. *P0.05 vs control; #P0.05 vs DDC.

View larger version (40K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Inhibition of SOD stimulates growth-related pathways involving c-fos and ERK1/ERK2. A, Time course for the induction of c-fos mRNA after exposure to DDC (1 µmol/L). B, Effect of DDC (1 µmol/L) on ERK1/ERK2 activity measured as phosphorylation of myelin basic protein by immunoprecipitated ERK1/ERK2.

The effects of SOD inhibition were mimicked by addition of XXO for 24 hours, which caused increases in [³H]leucine incorporation (88±22%; n=7; P=0.002) and protein content (92±9%; n=7; P<0.001) that were abolished by Tiron.

Effect of SOD Inhibition on Myocyte Phenotype
DDC (1 µmol/L, 24 hours) increased ANP mRNA by 194±58% and decreased SERCA2 mRNA by 34±5% (Figure 4). Both effects of DDC were inhibited by Tiron (100 µmol/L).

View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Effect of DDC on the expression of ANP and SERCA2 mRNAs. A, Representative Northern hybridization in myocytes treated with DDC (1 µmol/L), Tiron (100 µmol/L), or both for 24 hours. B and C, Mean changes in ANP and SERCA2 mRNA levels from 4 to 12 experiments. Data are normalized to 18S rRNA and are mean±SEM. *P0.05 vs control; #P0.05 vs DDC alone.

Effect of SOD Inhibition on Cell Membrane Integrity and Apoptosis
Exposure to DDC for 24 hours at concentrations up to 1 mmol/L had no effect on the membrane integrity of adherent or floating myocytes, as evidenced by the ability to exclude trypan blue dye (control cells, 85±6%; DDC-treated cells, 87±5%; n=3; P=NS), which indicated that DDC did not cause cell necrosis. At DDC concentrations >1 µmol/L, there was a decrease in the number of adherent cells (data not shown). XXO had no effect on membrane integrity (control cells, 85±6%; XXO-treated cells, 80±12%; n=3; P=NS).

DDC (100 µmol/L, 24 hours) increased DNA laddering (Figure 5), and this effect was inhibited by concomitant treatment with the SOD/catalase mimetic EUK-8 (10 µmol/L).¹⁶ Likewise, DDC (100 µmol/L, 24 hours) caused an apparent increase in the fraction of cells with nuclear condensation and fragmentation as visualized with the fluorescent DNA dye Hoechst 33342 (Figure 6A).

View larger version (64K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 5. Inhibition of SOD stimulates DNA laddering. Myocytes were incubated with DDC (100 µmol/L), the SOD/catalase-mimetic EUK-8 (10 µmol/L), or both for 24 hours. Low molecular weight DNA was extracted and visualized by gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining. The figure is representative of 4 similar experiments.

View larger version (71K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 6. Effects of DDC (100 µmol/L, 24 hours) on nuclear morphology, as assessed by staining with Hoechst 33342 (A), and DNA fragmentation, as assessed by TUNEL staining (B). Arrows identify condensed or fragmented nuclei (A) or TUNEL-positive cells (B). The figure is representative of 3 similar experiments. Bar=100 µm.

In control myocytes, 6±2% of nuclei were TUNEL-positive. Treatment with DDC (100 µmol/L, 24 hours) increased the percentage of TUNEL-positive nuclei 3.8±2.2–fold (Figures 6B and 7). EUK-8 (10 µmol/L) alone had no effect on the number of TUNEL-positive nuclei but prevented completely the DDC-stimulated increase (Figure 7). DDC concentrations >1 µmol/L caused cell detachment, which may be a stimulus for apoptosis known as anoikis.²³ To avoid the possibility that apoptosis was due to detachment, per se, TUNEL staining was assessed only in the adherent cells. XXO likewise increased DNA laddering (data not shown) and increased the number of TUNEL-positive nuclei 4.9±1.2–fold (n=3; P=0.014).

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 7. Inhibition of SOD increases TUNEL-positive myocytes. Cells were treated for 24 hours with DDC (100 µmol/L), EUK-8 (10 µmol/L), or both and stained as per Figure 6. Shown is the mean percentage of Hoechst 33342-stained nuclei that are TUNEL-positive from 3 to 4 experiments. *P0.05 vs control; #P0.05 vs DDC alone. Data are mean±SEM.

DDC (24 hours) increased the expression of bax mRNA in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 8). The level of bax mRNA was not affected at DDC concentrations of 1 µmol/L or less but was increased at 10 µmol/L and maximal at 100 µmol/L. XXO likewise increased bax 52±13% (n=5; P<0.001).

View larger version (34K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 8. DDC stimulates bax mRNA in a concentration-dependent manner. A, Representative Northern hybridization. B, Mean±SEM from 5 experiments, normalized to 18S rRNA. *P0.05 vs control.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
The major new finding of this study is that a sustained subnecrotic increase in superoxide level caused by partial inhibition of SOD has profound effects on the growth, phenotype, and death of cardiac myocytes. These effects were related to the concentration of DDC. At low concentrations (1 µmol/L), DDC stimulated cell growth, induced a fetal gene program, and activated growth-signaling pathways involving c-fos and ERK1/ERK2. At a higher concentration (100 µmol/L), DDC stimulated apoptosis and increased expression of bax mRNA. DDC-stimulated growth and apoptosis were mimicked by superoxide generation with XXO and prevented by a superoxide scavenger or an SOD/catalase-mimetic, which supports the conclusion that the observed effects were due to increased superoxide levels caused by SOD inhibition.

Oxidative Stress Stimulates Myocyte Growth
The growth effect of DDC is comparable in magnitude with that observed with several other stimuli such as norepinephrine,²⁴ interleukin-1ß,¹⁴ or endothelin²⁵ in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes. Coincident with cell growth, there was increased expression of ANP mRNA, which is typical of myocardial hypertrophy,²⁶ and decreased expression of SERCA2 mRNA, which may be observed with myocardial hypertrophy.²⁶ Oxidative stress is emerging as a growth signal in other cell types. In vascular smooth muscle cells, the hypertrophic effect of angiotensin depends on increased production of superoxide anion via NADH oxidase.¹⁰ A similar role was suggested in fibroblasts, in which increases in superoxide anion and oxidative stress have been implicated in mediating the growth effects of stimuli acting through ras.¹¹

Oxidative Stress Stimulates Apoptosis
Oxidative stress can cause necrotic cell death characterized by a loss of membrane integrity.²² However, DDC concentrations up to 1 mmol/L did not impair cell membrane integrity, which suggests that apoptosis occurred at a level of oxidative stress that was subnecrotic. Apoptosis was assessed by changes in nuclear morphology and increases in DNA laddering and in situ TUNEL staining. It should be noted that although DNA laddering is specific for apoptosis, it is not quantitative, and conversely, that TUNEL staining is quantitative but not specific for apoptosis.²⁷

Prior observations have implicated superoxide as a mechanism of cardiac myocyte apoptosis. Cheng et al¹² showed that stretch causes myocyte apoptosis associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species and that scavenging superoxide with a nitric oxide donor reduced the extent of apoptosis. Sawyer et al²⁸ implicated superoxide as a mechanism for anthracycline-stimulated myocyte apoptosis. Likewise, Dhalla et al⁸ showed that vitamin E is cardioprotective in pressure overload–induced hypertrophy, which appears to involve myocyte apoptosis.²⁹

Mechanism of Action of DDC
DDC inactivates Cu, Zn SOD, and extracellular SOD by chelating the copper ion at the active sites¹³ and has been shown to inhibit SOD activity in rat cardiac myocytes.²² Of note, chronic dietary deficiency of copper causes a characteristic cardiomyopathy that is associated with myocyte hypertrophy, ventricular dilation,³⁰ and decreased Cu, Zn SOD activity³¹ and is ameliorated by antioxidants.³² Dithiocarbamates such as DDC may have other actions relevant to the redox state of a cell and its response to oxidative stress. As thiols, they can auto-oxidize to form superoxide and other reactive oxygen species,³³ and alternatively, at high concentrations they may act as reducing agents.³⁴ Dithiocarbamates may also inhibit the activation of nuclear factor-B.³⁴ However, the ability of the superoxide scavenger Tiron¹⁵ and the SOD/catalase mimetic EUK-8¹⁶ to inhibit DDC-stimulated myocyte growth and apoptosis strongly supports a mechanistic role for superoxide anion in these experiments.

It is unclear whether DDC-stimulated hypertrophy and apoptosis are mediated by superoxide anion or other downstream reactive oxygen species, such as H₂O₂, produced by the spontaneous dismutation of superoxide anion. Relatively high concentrations of H₂O₂ can activate ERK1/ERK2 in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes.³⁵ Both Euk-8, which has SOD and catalase activities, and Tiron, which scavenges superoxide, would be expected to decrease H₂O₂ levels.

Implications
These observations were made in vitro in myocytes from neonatal rats, and therefore, they may not reflect events in adult myocytes in vivo. Nevertheless, the effects demonstrated here by inhibition of SOD suggest that oxidative stress may be an important mediator of myocyte growth, functional phenotype, and apoptosis. Oxidative stress may be increased in the myocardium of patients with heart failure.³⁶ Therefore, our findings suggest that a decrease in SOD activity could contribute to pathologic myocardial remodeling in humans and, conversely, that antioxidants might attenuate the development of myocardial failure.

	Acknowledgments

 
This work was supported by NIH grants HL42539, HL52320, and HL61639 (to W.S.C.); HL57947 (to K.S.); HL03878 (to D.B.S.); HL55425 (to P.J.P.); and HL07224 (to D.A.S.); and by a Grant-in-Aid from the American Heart Association (to P.J.P.); a Grant-in-Aid from the American Heart Association, Massachusetts Affiliate (to D.B.S.); and a Merit Grant from the Department of Veterans Affairs (to K.S.).

	Footnotes

 
¹ Both authors contributed equally to this study.

Received October 19, 1998; accepted April 8, 1999.

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