© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contribution |
Potential Role of a Membrane-Bound NADH Oxidoreductase in Nitric Oxide Release and Arterial Relaxation to Nitroprusside
From the Department of Physiology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY.
Correspondence to Michael S. Wolin, PhD, Department of Physiology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595. E-mail mike_wolin{at}nymc.edu
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Abstract—The site of metabolism in vascular smooth muscle responsible for the release of nitric oxide (NO) from nitroprusside is not well established. In this study we observed that a membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase in the pulmonary artery activates nitroprusside to release NO, and we examined whether this process could potentially participate in relaxation to nitroprusside. Relaxation to nitroprusside in bovine calf pulmonary artery is inhibited by a scavenger of NO and by an antagonist of NO stimulation of guanylate cyclase. A flavoprotein probe that inhibits pulmonary artery NADH oxidoreductase (1 µmol/L diphenyliodonium) and electron acceptors for NADH oxidoreductase (0.3 mmol/L nitroblue tetrazolium and 0.1 mmol/L ferricyanide) inhibited pulmonary artery relaxation to nitroprusside, but not to nitroglycerin. Pulmonary arteries were observed to promote the release of NO from nitroprusside in vitro, and NO release was inhibited by the presence of nitroblue tetrazolium, ferricyanide, and diphenyliodonium. In homogenates of pulmonary arteries, NADH (0.1 mmol/L) increased the release of NO from nitroprusside by
6-fold, whereas NADPH, mitochondrial substrates, and other redox
cofactors had minimal effects on NO release, and the action of NADH on
nitroprusside was inhibited by nitroblue tetrazolium, ferricyanide, and
diphenyliodonium. A membrane fraction enriched in NADH oxidoreductase
activity showed a NADH-dependent release of NO from nitroprusside;
nitroprusside caused NADH consumption, and it also inhibited the
NADH-dependent reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium. Thus, a
membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase appears to contribute to the release
of NO from nitroprusside, but not nitroglycerin, in
calf pulmonary artery.
Key Words: electron transport • guanylate cyclase • nitric oxide • nitroprusside • redox
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Nitroprusside is a clinically used vasodilator that appears to be metabolized across the peripheral vascular bed.1 Incubation of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) with isolated vascular tissue results in the generation of nitric oxide (NO),2 and it is thought that nitrovasodilators such as SNP and glycerol trinitrate (GTN) mediate their vasodilatory action through release of NO and activation of guanylate cyclase.3 4 5 Previous studies on the development of tolerance to nitrovasodilators in isolated vascular tissue suggested that GTN and SNP appeared to differ in their pathways of metabolism to the active vasodilator species.6 However, very little is known regarding the actual metabolic mechanisms in vascular tissue that promote the release of NO from these nitrovasodilators.5
It was first thought that SNP spontaneously released NO.7 Then it was suggested that chemical or enzymatic electron transfer reactions promoted NO release, because a variety of redox agents or systems appear to catalyze the release of its NO group.2 8 Multiple reducing agents, including NAD(P)H, thiols, ascorbate, reduced iron, hemoproteins, and cytochrome P-450 reductase, appear to enzymatically or chemically release NO from SNP in buffer systems.2 8 Early studies on the activation of guanylate cyclase by SNP typically included concentrations of thiols that probably contributed to NO release.7 In hepatocyte extracts, NAD(P)H-dependent cytochrome P-450 reductase and mitochondria have been reported to participate in the reductive metabolism of SNP.8 9 10 In vascular preparations, NADPH, NADH, and thiols have been reported to release NO from SNP, and the dominant site of metabolism appears to be membrane associated.2 8 In contrast, the metabolism of GTN to NO or its active metabolites has been suggested to involve systems including cytochrome P-450, glutathione transferase, and a plasma membrane–bound enzyme identified by Chung and Fung11 requiring a free thiol that appears to be active in the absence of NAD(P)H.5 12 Thus, evidence exists for multiple potential mechanisms of NO release from SNP, and the mechanism of NO generation from SNP appears to differ from that of GTN in vascular tissue. However, the primary metabolic pathway involved in the vasodilator actions of SNP remains to be defined.
In this study we examined the mechanism of NO release from SNP in bovine calf pulmonary artery (PA). This preparation was selected, because it was initially observed during our characterization of a membrane-bound NADH oxidase that NADH oxidoreductase activity obtained in this PA preparation was able to efficiently catalyze the release NO from SNP.13 In the previous work on the membrane fraction containing SNP metabolizing activity, we characterized some of the electron transfer properties of NADH oxidoreductases present, including what appears to be a NADH oxidase system containing a b558-type cytochrome and a flavoprotein reductase of this cytochrome.14 15 16 In this study, we report the properties of NO release from SNP by PA homogenates and a membrane fraction previously shown to be enriched in NADH oxidoreductase activity.14 The actions of probes previously developed in studies on the membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductases, including the electron acceptors nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT, 0.3 mmol/L) and potassium ferricyanide (FeCN, 0.1 mmol/L) and the flavoprotein inhibitor diphenyliodonium (DPI, 1 µmol/L), are examined for their actions on PA release of NO and relaxation to SNP. Because GTN is thought to produce vascular relaxation through a mechanism similar to that of SNP, GTN was used in vascular reactivity studies to provide evidence for the selective actions of probes used to study the metabolic activation of SNP.
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Materials and Methods |
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Materials
Collagenase (type V), soybean trypsin inhibitor (type 1-S), elastase (type IV), MOPS, NADH, NADPH, glutathione (reduced form), glutathione (oxidized form, disodium salt), rotenone, maleate (disodium salt), glutamate (monoammonium salt), bovine blood superoxide dismutase (CuZn-SOD), catalase from bovine liver (type C-40), NBT, hemoglobin (Hb) from bovine blood, potassium ferricyanide, sodium nitrite, N-1-naphthyl-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride, and sulfanilamide were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. DPI chloride was purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. Nitroglycerin solutions were prepared by dissolving 0.4-mg sublingual tablets (Parke-Davis) in distilled water. The scavenger of NO carboxy-PTIO or 1H-imidazol-1-yloxy,2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,5-dihydro-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-3-oxide, potassium salt (PTIO), and the inhibitor of NO-elicited guanylate cyclase activation 1H-1,2,4-oxadiazolo[4,3,-a]quinoxaline-1-1 (ODQ) were obtained from Cayman Chemical Co. The NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) was synthesized as previously described.7 Hb was reduced by reacting solutions containing 0.1 mmol/L Hb with a 10-fold excess of sodium dithionite, followed by dialysis to remove the dithionite decomposition products. Other chemicals were of analyzed reagent grade from Baker Chemical Co.
Measurement of Changes in Force in Bovine Calf PA
Isolated arterial rings of 4 mm in diameter
and length with endothelium removed were prepared from
the second and third branches of the main lobar PA of bovine calf lungs
obtained immediately after slaughter, and the
endothelium was removed by gentle rubbing, as
previously described.15 16 Briefly, PA rings were mounted
on stainless steel hooks attached to Grass force displacement
transducers (type FT-03) for measurements of changes in isometric force
on a Grass polygraph (model 7). Arteries were incubated for 2 hours at
an optimal passive tension of 5 g in individually thermostated
(37°C) 10-mL baths (Metro Scientific). These studies were conducted
in Krebs-bicarbonate buffer, pH 7.4, and gassed with 21%
O2-5% CO2 (balance
N2). After 2 hours of equilibration, the vessels
were depolarized with Krebs-bicarbonate containing KCl in place of
NaCl. The arteries were then reequilibrated with Krebs buffer for 30
minutes before the experiments were conducted. The functional removal
of endothelium was typically examined by confirmation
that PAs precontracted with 10–7 mol/L
serotonin did not show a relaxant response on exposure to
10–8 to 10–6 mol/L doses
of acetylcholine. After a 30-minute equilibration, arterial
rings were contracted to 7 g with 20 to 30 mmol/L KCl. Once a
stable contraction was obtained, cumulative increasing concentrations
of SNP, GTN, or SNAP were added to each artery studied. In these
studies, PA rings were preincubated for 15 minutes before contraction
with KCl in the absence or presence of 10 µmol/L ODQ, 0.1
mmol/L PTIO, 1 µmol/L DPI, 0.1 mmol/L FeCN, or 0.3
mmol/L NBT, as indicated in Results, and the probes remained
present during exposure to SNP or GTN. The doses of the probes used
were generally the highest concentrations of these agents that appeared
to avoid nonspecific effects (such as the depression of force) that
were generally observed at higher doses. In some experiments, the
response to SNP was studied under a severely hypoxic environment
(PO2 8 to 10 torr) produced by
gassing the tissue bath with 95% N2-5%
CO2.
Preparation of the PA Homogenate and Membranes Enriched
With NADH Oxidoreductase Activity
The PA homogenate was prepared as previously
described.14 17 Membranes enriched with NADH
oxidoreductase activity were prepared15 by centrifuging a
filtered homogenate suspension at 5°C in a Sorvall SS-34
rotor at 29 000g for 15 minutes. The supernatant obtained
from the 29 000g centrifugation was
transferred to a Beckman ultracentrifuge equipped with a Ti50
rotor, and this fraction was centrifuged for 60 minutes at
100 000g. The sedimented pellet obtained (yield=0.60±0.05
mg protein/g PA) was previously shown to be enriched in plasma membrane
and microsomal marker enzyme activities. This membrane pellet was
washed with 2 mL of a sucrose-MOPS buffer solution that contained
250 mmol/L sucrose and 20 mmol/L MOPS (adjusted to pH 7.4
with KOH), and it was stored in 2 mL of the same buffer at 0°C to
5°C.
Measurement of NO Head-Space Gas Production by Intact and
Homogenized PA Fractions
The release of NO from SNP was quantified by an adaptation of
previously described methods.18 19 20 Major lobar PAs with
endothelium removed were cleaned, cut to small strips,
and incubated for 30 minutes with bicarbonate-buffered Krebs solution.
Tissue (300 mg) or arterial homogenate
fractions (0.5 to 1.5 mg of protein) were then placed in Fernbach
flasks (total volume, 6 mL; VWR Scientific) filled with 2 mL of 10
mmol/L HEPES-NaOH–buffered Krebs solution (pH 7.4), and then the
flasks were covered with rubber-sleeve septa. Flasks were incubated at
37°C, and the contents of the flasks were then
deoxygenated with argon gas for 15 to 20 minutes. After
deoxygenation, drugs in deoxygenated
solutions were injected with the use of gas-tight syringes, and then
the flasks were incubated for the time period used to measure NO
accumulation, as indicated in Results. Some preliminary experiments
were also conducted in the absence of deoxygenation.
One head-space gas sample (0.5 mL) was taken from each flask with a
gas-tight syringe. Measurements of the NO content of the aliquots of
head-space gas were then conducted by injection into a model 207B Redox
chemiluminescence detector (Sievers Research, Inc). This instrument
quantifies the chemiluminescence that originates from injected NO in
the sample, when it is reacted with ozone. This chemiluminescence
method for NO was calibrated using calibration gases obtained from MG
Industries, and the intensity of the emitted light was proportional to
the amount of NO in the sample. NO standard samples were injected into
the NO analyzer from gas-tight syringes that were flushed with
argon before use and between the samples. The peak area (voltage)
values of the individual NO standards were plotted against known NO
concentrations. The slope and the y intercept of the line
were determined by linear regression analysis. All incubations
with SNP showed a small (presumably photochemical2 )
generation of NO in the absence of PA or isolated membranes, and the
inhibitory probes used for probing NADH oxidoreductase did
not significantly alter the detected amount of NO derived spontaneously
from SNP. This background level of NO was subtracted from all data
reported in Results. Although the quantity of NO released from PAs by
0.1 mmol/L SNP was observed to be similar under an atmosphere of
21% O2 compared with an argon atmosphere (n=6),
detailed studies on the release of NO by this head-space gas method
were conducted under argon atmosphere, because previous studies with
this method used severe hypoxia and because preliminary studies
indicated that an atmosphere of 21% O2 caused a
marked impairment (>90% inhibition, n=3) of our ability to detect
NAD(P)H-elicited release of NO from SNP in the homogenate
preparation. Because the presence of 0.3 µmol/L CuZn-SOD
(n=3) slightly enhanced the detection of NO under 21%
O2, but not under argon, from the
homogenate preparation, it is likely that the redox control
of superoxide metabolism was altered in the
homogenate preparation.
Measurement of SNP-Derived NO From PA Membranes by Hb
Oxidation
NO was measured in isolated membranes with a spectrophotometric
assay that determines the amount of NO-elicited methemoglobin formation
from oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb), which is catalyzed by NO.21
This method was chosen to permit studies with isolated PA membranes to
be conducted under similar conditions. Briefly, the changes in
absorbances of Hb at 577 and 592 nm were measured, and an
577–592 of 11.2
(mmol/L)–1 · cm–1 was
used to calculate the concentration of the NO formed. The assay mixture
contained (final concentration): 5 µmol/L oxyHb, 0.3
µmol/L CuZn-SOD (to inhibit the removal of NO caused by NADH
oxidase-derived superoxide), 0.1 µmol/L catalase (to prevent the
oxidation of oxyHb by hydrogen peroxide), 1 mmol/L glutathione,
0.1 mmol/L SNP, and 0.05 to 0.08 mg of membrane-fraction
protein in air-equilibrated sucrose/MOPS buffer. The assay was
initiated at 37°C by addition of 0.1 mmol/L (final
concentration) NADH.
Measurement of SNP-Derived Nitrite (NO2–)
From PA Membranes
The nitrite assay was performed as an additional method of
measurement of NO release from SNP. Briefly, the assay mixture in
air-equilibrated sucrose/MOPS buffer contained the following: 0.05 to
0.09 mg of membrane-fraction protein, 0.1 mmol/L SNP, and 1
mmol/L glutathione. The reaction was initiated at 37°C by addition of
0.1 mmol/L NADH in a final volume of 1.0 mL. The reaction was
terminated by the addition of 1 mL of 1% sulfanilamide and 100 µL of
0.2% N-(1-napthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. The
mixture was then vortexed and incubated for 10 minutes at room
temperature, and measurements of the absorbance at 540 nm were used to
quantify the amount of nitrite present. Quantification was based on
a comparison with the absorbances of known amounts of nitrite, under
the conditions used to measure nitrite production by the
membrane fractions. Under these conditions, the amounts of NADH used
had no effect on the detection of nitrite.
Measurement of SNP-Elicited NADH Oxidation by PA Membranes
NADH oxidation by and 0.05 to 0.10 mg/mL of membrane fraction
protein was measured in air-equilibrated sucrose/MOPS buffer in the
absence and presence of 0.1 mmol/L SNP by following the change in
NADH absorption at 340 nm.22 The extinction coefficient of
6.23
(mmol/L)–1 · cm–1 was
used to calculate the rate of NADH oxidation.
Measurement of the Effect of SNP on NADH-Elicited NBT Reduction by
PA Membranes
NBT reduction by and 0.05 to 0.10 mg/mL of membrane fraction
protein was measured in air-equilibrated sucrose/MOPS buffer in the
absence and presence of 0.1 mmol/L SNP by modification of a method
previously described.15 The change in absorbance of
62.5 µmol/L NBT at 360 nm was used to calculate the rate of NBT
reduction based on an extinction coefficient of 15
(mmol/L)–1 · cm–1.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed by Student's t test or by
1-way ANOVA using a post hoc Duncan's test for the determination of
statistical significance between groups. A P<0.05 was used
to determine statistical significance. Enzyme-kinetic
parameters were determined using the computer program
EnzymeKinetics (Trinity Software). The number of experimental
determinations (n) in all cases is equal to the number of animals from
which an arterial segment, homogenate, or
isolated membrane fraction was used as a control or treatment group.
Data in the figures are depicted as mean±SE.
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Results |
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Effects of a Scavenger of NO (PTIO) and an Inhibitor of NO Stimulation of Guanylate Cyclase (ODQ) on Relaxation of PA to SNP and GTN
The effects of a scavenger of NO, PTIO,23 on the relaxation of PA to SNP (and GTN) were used to confirm the role of NO in vasodilator responses. As shown in Figure 1
, PTIO inhibited the
concentration-dependent relaxation of PA to SNP, but not to GTN. The
effects of an inhibitor of NO-elicited stimulation of
soluble guanylate cyclase (ODQ24 ) were
used to confirm the importance of this process in the mechanism
of PA relaxation to SNP and GTN. As shown in Figure 1, ODQ
essentially eliminated the relaxant responses to both SNP and GTN.
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Effects of Electron Acceptors (NBT and FeCN) and a Flavoprotein
Inhibitor (DPI) on Relaxation of PA to SNP and GTN
We have previously reported15 that NADH
oxidoreductase transfers electrons from NADH to NBT and FeCN causing a
previously quantified, spectrally detectable reduction of these
electron acceptors. Because both NBT and FeCN accept electrons from
NADH oxidoreductase activity present in the membranes of
PA,15 we used the electron-accepting properties of these
probes as a potential method of investigating the role of this electron
transport system in the mechanism of SNP-mediated relaxation. As shown
in Figure 2, 0.3 mmol/L NBT markedly
attenuated PA relaxation to SNP without altering relaxation of GTN. The
data in Figure 3 indicate that 0.1
mmol/L FeCN caused a marked inhibition of relaxation to SNP without
altering relaxation to GTN. To further confirm that NBT and FeCN did
not scavenge NO or alter the mechanism of relaxation of PA to NO,
additional experiments (n=7 or 8) were conducted examining the effects
of FeCN and NBT on the relaxant response to the NO donor SNAP. The
relaxation of 69.4±8.8% to 1 µmol/L of SNAP was 81.4±3.9% in
the presence of 0.3 mmol/L NBT and was 64.1±3.7% in the presence
of 0.1 mmol/L FeCN. Because these probes do not alter the relaxant
response to SNAP, NBT and FeCN do not appear to scavenge NO or alter
the mechanism through which it mediates relaxation under the conditions
used in the present study. We have previously shown16
that NADH oxidoreductase activity in the homogenate of PA
can be inhibited by a flavoprotein-selective inhibitor,
1 µmol/L DPI. As shown in Figure 4, DPI caused a modest inhibition of PA
relaxation to SNP, whereas GTN-mediated relaxation was not affected.
Because most of the studies on the release of NO from SNP were
conducted under an atmosphere of severe hypoxia, the effects of
an atmosphere of 95% N2-5%
CO2 (PO2=8 to
10 torr) on relaxation to this agent in the absence and presence of
NBT, FeCN, and DPI were examined. Severe hypoxia caused an
increase in the sensitivity to relaxation by SNP, but it did not appear
to alter the effects of the probes. For example, 0.1
µmol/L SNP caused a relaxation of 93±6% under
N2 compared with 63±7% relaxation under a 21%
O2 atmosphere (n=8, P<0.05). The
response to this dose of SNP was inhibited 56% (41±10% relaxation,
n=8) under N2 compared with 87% inhibition under
21% O2 atmosphere by NBT, 62% (36±9%
relaxation, n=8) under N2 compared with 89%
inhibition under 21% O2 atmosphere by FeCN, and
64% (33±12% relaxation, n=8) under N2 compared
with 37% inhibition under 21% O2 atmosphere by
DPI.
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Effects of NBT, FeCN, and DPI on the Generation of NO From SNP
by PA
In this part of the study, we examined the effect of NBT, FeCN,
and DPI on NO release from SNP in PA segments with
endothelium removed. As shown by the data in Figure 5A, the release of NO from SNP by PA was
attenuated by a flavoprotein inhibitor of NADH
oxidoreductase (DPI) and was markedly inhibited by the electron
acceptors of NADH oxidoreductase (NBT and FeCN). In confirmation of
observations previously made in isolated rabbit aorta,19
GTN (0.1 mmol/L) did not elicit a detectable release of NO under
the conditions used for the SNP studies in the presence of either an
air or an argon atmosphere (n=4, not shown).
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Effects of Cellular Redox Cofactors on the Generation of NO
From SNP in PA Homogenates
Previous studies suggest that NADPH, NADH, glutathione, and
mitochondrial electron transport should be considered as sources of
electrons that could potentially cause the reductive release of NO from
SNP.2 8 9 10 The data in the
Table indicate that NADH (0.1
mmol/L) was the most active electron donor in promoting the release of
NO from SNP (0.1 mmol/L). NADPH (0.1 mmol/L) and glutathione
(1 mmol/L) also caused a detectable release of NO, whereas
substrates for mitochondrial transport (5 mmol/L
glutamate+maleate) and oxidized glutathione (1 mmol/L) did not
release NO. Because rotenone did not significantly modify the
NADH-dependent release of NO from SNP, mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase
of the electron transport chain did not appear to be involved. Under
conditions similar to those in studies with SNP, GTN (0.1 mmol/L)
did not produce a detectable release of NO in the absence or presence
of 0.1 mmol/L NADH (n=4, not shown).
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Effects of NBT, FeCN, and DPI on the NADH-Dependent Generation of
NO From SNP by PA Homogenates
The data in Figure 5B
indicate that NBT, FeCN, and DPI all
showed a pattern of inhibition of NADH-dependent release of NO from SNP
that was similar to the effects of these probes on NO release from SNP
in PA shown in Figure 5A. While FeCN inhibited the modest
release of NO from SNP catalyzed by NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase
activity, NBT and DPI did not significantly alter the actions of NADPH
(see Table). Preliminary experiments conducted during the
development of this study indicated that the release of NO from a
20-fold lower dose of SNP (5 µmol/L) observed during a prolonged
incubation of PA homogenates+0.1 mmol/L NADH
(15-minute incubation, n=11 or 12) or PAs with
endothelium removed (60-minute incubation, n=11 to 31)
were also significantly inhibited by NBT and DPI (not shown).
Experiments were conducted in the presence of 0.1 mmol/L NADH to
estimate the Km for SNP and the
Ki for NBT and FeCN. On the basis of the
amounts of NADH-elicited release of NO from SNP over the 25
µmol/L to 1 mmol/L concentration range and the effects of 30 and
100 µmol/L doses of NBT and 10 and 30 µmol/L doses of
FeCN, the apparent Km for SNP was 185
µmol/L, the apparent Ki for NBT was
100 µmol/L, and the apparent Ki for
FeCN was 10 µmol/L.
Properties of SNP Metabolism by Isolated PA Membranes
Enriched in NADH Oxidoreductase Activity
Under the conditions used for head-space NO release measurements
on the homogenate, isolated PA membranes showed an increase
(P<0.05) in the release of NO from 0.1 mmol/L SNP of
24±5 and 4±1 nmol/min per mg of protein (n=3) in the presence of
0.1 mmol/L NADH and NADPH, respectively. The supernatant fraction
in the presence of NADH and NADPH showed increases that did not reach
statistical significance of 4±1 and 1±1 nmol/min per mg (n=3),
respectively. Because these preliminary studies indicated that the
NADH-dependent release of NO from 0.1 mmol/L SNP was enriched
6-fold (P<0.05) in the 100 000g membrane
fraction compared with the 100 000g supernatant fraction,
further studies were conducted on the membrane fraction. In these
studies, additional approaches were used to examine the
metabolism of SNP under an air-equilibrated atmosphere. The
effect of SNP on the rate of NADH oxidation by the membrane fraction
NADH oxidoreductase was examined. As is shown in Figure 6A, 0.1 mmol/L SNP accelerated NADH
oxidation by membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase by 50 nmol/min per
mg of protein (P<0.001). We previously have
shown15 that membrane NADH oxidoreductase activity is
able to reduce many electron acceptors, including NBT. In the presence
of 0.1 mmol/L SNP, NBT reduction decreased by 92% (see Figure 6B). Under conditions similar to the measurements of NADH
consumption and NBT reduction, the production of NO from SNP
was measured indirectly through quantification of nitrite in the
presence of the isolated membrane fraction and NADH. As shown in Figure 7A, in the presence of NADH, nitrite
formation was significantly increased by 51 nmol/10 minutes per mg of
PA protein (P<0.05). The production of NO was also
examined directly through oxyHb oxidation in the presence of 0.1
mmol/L SNP. As shown in Figure 7B, in the presence of the
membrane fraction and NADH, NO production was significantly
increased by 34 nmol/10 minutes per mg of protein.
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Discussion |
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The data in this study suggest that a membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase system has properties consistent with its functioning in the reductive release of vascular relaxant levels of NO from SNP in PA. In addition to its being the most active NO-releasing redox system examined in the PA homogenate, electron acceptors (NBT and FeCN) and an inhibitor (DPI) of membrane NADH oxidoreductase, which attenuated the release of NO in the homogenate, also attenuated SNP-dependent NO release and relaxation of PAs with endothelium removed. Figure 8
contains a model for how the probes
used in this study potentially interact with the hypothesized role for
a membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase in the mechanism of NO release and
pulmonary arterial relaxation to SNP.
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During the course of examining the electron-transfer properties of NADH oxidoreductase activities present in membranes obtained from PA, it was observed that the membrane fraction studied contained a very high level of NADH-dependent reductase activity for electron acceptors, including FeCN and NBT.15 Because of structural similarities between FeCN (potassium ferricyanide or K3Fe[CN]6) and SNP (sodium nitroferricyanide, Na2Fe[CN]5NO), we suspected that SNP could be an electron acceptor for membrane-bound oxidoreductases, and we initially examined the effect of SNP on NADH oxidation and on NADH-elicited nitrite and NO formation by isolated PA membranes. In the presence of 0.1 mmol/L SNP, there was a marked increase in NADH oxidation, suggesting that SNP was an electron acceptor for membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductases. In addition, similar increases in NO and its aerobic decomposition product nitrite were observed in the presence of NADH. Although the increase in the consumption of NADH in the presence of SNP was greater than the amount of NO and nitrite production, this may be partially explained by a combination of factors, including the release of NO from SNP involving a multistep process, which is discussed below, and a potential inhibitory influence of aerobic conditions on the production and/or detection of NO from SNP by isolated tissue fractions. Since NBT is another electron acceptor that is reduced by NADH oxidoreductases present in PA membranes, we examined the effect of SNP on NADH-mediated NBT reduction. The reduction of NBT by NADH was also markedly inhibited in the presence of 0.1 mmol/L SNP. This observation suggests that SNP and NBT compete with each other for reduction, suggesting the potential involvement of a specific NADH oxidoreductase. While the data are consistent with the involvement of a specific NADH oxidoreductase in the release of NO from SNP, the normal function of the enzyme with this activity and its relationship with previously characterized14 15 16 sources of NADH-dependent superoxide production by these membranes remain to be defined. Because of the presence of this oxidase activity in the microsomes and difficulties detecting NADH-dependent release of NO from SNP by head-space gas methods under aerobic conditions, it is possible that the production of superoxide and its interaction with NO had an influence on some of the experiments conducted with microsomes under aerobic conditions. Overall, these data suggest that a NADH oxidoreductase activity present in PA membranes catalyzes a NADH-dependent reduction of SNP, and this is associated with the production of NO.
Previous studies have observed that SNP can undergo 1 electron
reduction by the NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductase activities of
microsomal cytochrome P-450 reductase or mitochondria derived from rat
hepatocytes to form metal-nitroxyl
radicals.9 10 Once SNP is reduced, it appears that NO,
cyanide, and H2O2 are
produced as byproducts of the further metabolism of
SNP.2 9 10 Studies on the subcellular fractions of
vascular tissue have detected during prolonged incubations with SNP
that a NADPH-regenerating system promotes NO release from mitochondrial
and membrane-enriched fractions, and that NADH also released
NO.2 8 Our previous work suggests that isolated PA
membranes contain relatively low levels of NADPH oxidoreductase
activities,14 and preliminary experiments with isolated PA
membranes determined that NADH (0.1 mmol/L) caused a 6-fold
greater release of NO from SNP than NADPH (0.1 mmol/L). This was
similar to observations made in the homogenate of PA, in
which NADPH released only 20% of the amount of NO generated by a
similar level of NADH. The differences between the observations made in
the present study and previous work in vascular
tissue2 8 may originate from the brief duration (1 minute)
of the homogenate incubations used in the present study
and the apparent absence of use of a NADH-regenerating system during
the prolonged incubations used in the previous studies. The attenuation
of NADH-elicited NO release by electron acceptors (FeCN and NBT) of
membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase activity and by the flavoprotein
inhibitor (DPI) are consistent with an enzyme, with
NADH oxidoreductase activity being the key NADH-dependent system
present in the homogenate that metabolizes SNP to
release NO. As shown by the data in Figure 5, NBT, FeCN, and DPI
also caused inhibition of NO release from SNP by PAs, with
endothelium removed in a manner similar to the effects
of these probes on NADH-dependent NO generation from SNP in the PA
homogenate. The inhibitory action of DPI also
indicates that a flavoprotein participates in the release of NO from
SNP by PA. Because NADPH-elicited NO release from SNP in the PA
homogenate was inhibited by FeCN, but not significantly
altered by NBT and DPI, NADPH oxidoreductases may not be a primary
source of the observed generation of NO from SNP in PAs with
endothelium removed. Mitochondrial electron transport
did not seem to be a detectable source of NO release from SNP, since
mitochondrial substrates (glutamate+maleate) did not cause NO release
and since the NADH-dependent production of NO was not
significantly altered by rotenone, an inhibitor of NADH
dehydrogenase of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Thus, PA
membranes contain a NADH oxidoreductase activity that seems to have a
more important role in the metabolic release of NO from SNP
in intact and homogenized PA than the other redox systems
examined.
The data in this study are consistent with a role for NADH
oxidoreductase–elicited release of NO in the mechanism of PA
relaxation to SNP, but not to GTN. Since a trapping agent for NO (PTIO)
and an inhibitor of guanylate cyclase
activation by NO (ODQ) inhibited relaxation to SNP, NO formation
appears to play a key role in the mechanism of PA relaxation to SNP. In
the presence of the electron acceptors for NADH oxidoreductase, NBT and
FeCN, SNP-mediated relaxation was inhibited in what appears to be a
competitive manner. This is consistent with a potential
competition between NBT or FeCN with SNP for NADH
oxidoreductase–derived electrons that are presumably required for the
release of NO from SNP. On the other hand, NBT and FeCN did not
significantly alter relaxation to GTN or the NO donor SNAP, which is
consistent with these electron acceptors having a selective
effect on the release of NO from SNP by a system such as the
membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase. DPI was also able to inhibit
SNP-mediated, but not GTN-mediated, relaxation in PA. While the
inhibition of SNP-mediated relaxation of PA by DPI also appeared to be
of a competitive type, it is likely that this originates from both DPI
restraining the rate of electron transfer at each dose of SNP and SNP
concentrations being below the level that maximizes its rate of
metabolism, since the Km for
SNP appears to be 185 µmol/L. The absence of inhibition of
relaxation to GTN by the DPI treatment used is also consistent
with DPI having a selective effect on the release of NO from SNP by a
system such as the detected membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase and the
absence of a role for this electron transport system in the
metabolic activation of GTN.
The actual pathway through which GTN is metabolized by vascular tissue to promote vascular relaxation is not well established, but it is generally thought that the formation of NO and the activation of guanylate cyclase have key roles in this process.3 4 5 The potent inhibitory effect of ODQ on relaxation to GTN observed in the present study further supports previous work24 25 consistent with the importance of guanylate cyclase stimulation in the mechanism of PA relaxation to GTN. The absence of an inhibitory effect of a trapping agent for NO (PTIO) on PA relaxation to GTN is more difficult to interpret, since the metabolic generation of NO from GTN might occur in the proximity of guanylate cyclase and PTIO is thought23 to have only limited access to this intracellular site. The data obtained in this study are not consistent with NADH oxidoreductase having a role in the relaxant action of GTN, since the probes for this system (NBT, FeCN, and DPI) did not alter PA relaxation to GTN and isolated PA membranes did not show a detectable release of NO from GTN in the presence of NADH. The absence of an inhibitory effect of DPI should not be interpreted as eliminating a role for all flavoproteins in the metabolic activation of GTN, since other flavoproteins could potentially be less susceptible to the inhibitory effects of DPI.26 Thus, the data in the present study do not provide new information on the metabolic activation of GTN in vascular tissue other than that the NADH oxidoreductase that releases NO from SNP does not appear to play a key role in relaxation to GTN.
In summary, a NADH oxidoreductase activity previously characterized14 15 16 in a membrane fraction obtained from the calf PA may play an important role in the metabolism and release of NO from SNP, but not from GTN. On the basis of the inhibitory actions of some of the probes used, the NADH oxidoreductase involved in the release of NO from SNP appears to be a flavoprotein that contains sites that transfer electrons to FeCN and NBT. Since FeCN is not thought to be readily transported across cell membranes,27 the membrane-bound NADH oxidoreductase activity examined in the present study may function to transfer electrons needed for the release of NO from intracellular cytosolic NADH to SNP on the extracellular surface. There is substantial evidence that many cell types have a transmembrane electron transport system, and the reduction of FeCN is typically used to assay this system.27 28 While it is possible that other enzymes, such as the inflammatory cell membrane-bound NADPH oxidoreductase, could cause NO release by transferring electrons to SNP, previous work examining the cell surface enzymatic activity that reduced FeCN (see References 27 and 2827 28 ) seems to have only observed a primary role for NADH oxidoreductase in this response. The selective inhibitory effect of the trapping agent for NO (PTIO) on relaxation to SNP compared with GTN could be interpreted as being consistent with an extracellular generation of NO from SNP, but not from GTN. An observation that is consistent with the importance of an extracellular release of NO from SNP in vivo is the reported29 selective attenuation of the vasodilator response to SNP (compared with other NO-releasing agents) in the cerebral circulation by infusion of cross-linked Hb. Thus, the data in this study are consistent with the hypothesis that NO is released from SNP on the extracellular surface of cells in the vasculature by a transmembrane NADH oxidoreductase electron transport system.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by United States Public Health Service grants HL31069 and HL43023 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and grant 970118 from the American Heart Association (New York State Affiliate). We thank Sachin A. Gupte for preparing the PA homogenates used in this study.
Received July 23, 1998; accepted November 11, 1998.
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