© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contribution |
Anoxia/Reoxygenation-Induced Tolerance With Respect to Polymorphonuclear Leukocyte Adhesion to Cultured Endothelial Cells
A Nuclear Factor-
B–Mediated Phenomenon
From the Vascular Cell Biology Laboratory, London Health Sciences Centre-Research Inc, London, Ontario, Canada.
Correspondence to Peter R. Kvietys, PhD, Vascular Cell Biology Laboratory, London Health Sciences Centre-Research Inc, 375 South St, Room C210, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 4G5. E-mail pkvietys{at}julian.uwo.ca
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Exposing human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) to anoxia/reoxygenation (A/R) results in an increase in polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) adhesion to HUVECs. This A/R-induced hyperadhesion is completely prevented by a previous (24 hours earlier) exposure of HUVECs to A/R. This phenomenon has been termed "A/R tolerance." Exposing HUVECs to A/R induces an increase in nuclear factor
B (NF-B) in HUVEC nuclei within 4 hours.
Interfering with either NF-B activation (proteasome
inhibitor) or translocation (double-stranded
oligonucleotides containing NF-B binding sequence)
prevents the development of A/R tolerance (ie, the increase in
A/R-induced PMN adhesion to HUVECs is the same after the first and
second A/R challenges). NO production by HUVECs is increased
after the second A/R challenge, but not after the first A/R challenge.
Inhibition of NO synthase (NOS) during the second A/R challenge
prevents the development of A/R tolerance with respect to PMN adhesion.
However, while HUVECs contained endothelial NOS
protein, no inducible NOS was detected in either tolerant or
nontolerant cells. Further studies indicated that inhibition of
GTP-cyclohydrolase I (an enzyme involved in de novo synthesis of an
important cofactor for NOS activity, tetrahydrobiopterin) prevented the
generation of NO in A/R-tolerant cells. Extracellular generation of NO
(NO donor) did not effect the hyperadhesion response induced by the
initial A/R challenge. A/R also induced an oxidant stress in naive
HUVECs, but not in A/R-tolerant HUVECs. Inhibition of NOS during the
second A/R insult results in the generation of an oxidant stress
similar to that observed after the first A/R challenge. Taken together,
the findings of the present study are consistent with a
role for NF-B in the development of A/R tolerance (with respect to
PMN adhesion), perhaps by transcriptional regulation of
GTP-cyclohydrolase. The increased NO production during the
second A/R insult reduces PMN adhesion most likely by reducing the
intracellular oxidant stress induced by A/R.
Key Words: nitric oxide • nitric oxide synthase • GTP-cyclohydrolase I • tetrahydrobiopterin
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Reperfusion of previously ischemic tissues results in a series of events reminiscent of an acute inflammatory response.1 2 Intravital microscopy approaches have shown that the microvasculature, particularly the postcapillary venules, is the initial target of ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)–induced dysfunction. I/R results in an increase in leukocyte adhesion to postcapillary venules and emigration into the interstitium, as well as an increase in the microvascular permeability to albumin. Antioxidants, antagonists of lipid mediators (platelet-activating factor [PAF] and leukotriene B4 [LTB4]), and immunoneutralization of adhesion molecules on neutrophils (CD11/CD18) or endothelial cells (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) have all been shown to reduce both the neutrophil-endothelial cell adhesion interactions and the increase in vascular permeability noted after I/R.
In vitro models have been developed to mimic the microvascular
dysfunction elicited by I/R. This approach involves exposing cultured
endothelial cells to anoxia (or hypoxia) and
subsequently reoxygenating them (anoxia/reoxygenation;
A/R). Challenging endothelial cells with A/R results in
increases in (1) oxidant production, (2) activation of nuclear
transcription factors (nuclear factor B [NF-B] and
activator protein-1), (3) adhesion molecule expression, (4)
increased adhesivity to neutrophils, and (5) permeability to
macromolecules.1 These in vitro approaches have allowed
for mechanistic studies not readily performed using in vivo models. For
example, supernatants obtained from A/R-conditioned
endothelial cells can increase surface expression of
CD11/CD18 on neutrophils and promote neutrophil adhesion to naive
endothelial monolayers, an effect inhibited by
antioxidants and a PAF receptor antagonist.3
In addition, in vitro approaches have allowed for the characterization
of the contribution of various adhesion molecules on
endothelial cells and neutrophils at different times
after reoxygenation.4 Taken together, the
in vitro model of A/R very closely simulates the situation in vivo
after I/R and allows for a more in-depth analysis of the
cellular and molecular events involved in this pathology.
Although I/R induces a leukocyte-mediated microvascular and parenchymal cell dysfunction in affected tissue, I/R can also induce a series of events that renders the tissue more resistant to a subsequent I/R insult. This phenomenon, termed "I/R tolerance" has been demonstrated in the heart,5 6 kidneys,7 brain,8 and intestine.9 Typically, I/R tolerance requires several hours or days to develop, indicating that some transcriptional event may be involved. Studies in the intestine indicate that the development of I/R tolerance is not due to an adaptational response of the parenchymal cells but to some cell type in the lamina propria.9 Endothelial cells are a resident cell population of the lamina propria of a variety of organ systems. They can also mount an adaptational response to an oxidant stress that renders them less susceptible to the injurious effects of a second oxidant challenge imposed several hours later.10 Thus, to study the mechanisms involved in the development of I/R tolerance, we focused our attention on endothelial cells and used our in vitro model of A/R to define some of the key cellular events involved in this phenomenon.
The present study is the first to demonstrate that
endothelial cells can, indeed, develop A/R tolerance
with respect to neutrophil adhesion to endothelium (ie,
the typical A/R-induced increase in neutrophil adhesion is abolished if
the endothelial cells are pretreated with an A/R
insult). We also present evidence indicating that activation and
translocation of the nuclear transcription factor (NF-B) to HUVEC
nuclei plays a critical role in the development of this tolerance.
Furthermore, we have dissected out some of the critical pathways
involved in the NF-B-mediated development of A/R tolerance in
endothelial cells and propose a working hypothesis for
future studies of this phenomenon.
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Materials and Methods |
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Endothelial Cells
Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were harvested from umbilical cords by collagenase treatment (Worthington Biochemical, Inc, Freehold, NJ) as previously described.3 The cells were grown in medium M199 (GIBCO) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FCS (Intergen, Purchase, NY), thymidine (2.4 mg/L), heparin sodium (10 IU/mL), penicillin (100 IU/mL), streptomycin (100 µg/mL) (Sigma Chemical Co), and endothelial cell mitogen (80 µg/mL) (Biomedical Technologies, Stoughton, Mass). The cell cultures were incubated at room air with 5% CO2, 37°C, and 95% humidity and expanded by brief trypsinization with 0.25% trypsin in PBS containing 0.025% EDTA. First through third–passage HUVECs were seeded into fibronectin-coated 48-well tissue culture plates (Costar) and used for experiments when confluent.
Neutrophils
Human neutrophilic polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) were
isolated from venous blood of healthy adults using standard dextran
sedimentation and gradient separation on Histopaque-1077 (Sigma
Chemical Co).3 This procedure yields a PMN population that
is 95% to 98% viable (trypan blue exclusion) and 98% pure (acetic
acid-crystal violet staining).
A/R Protocol
The in vitro model of I/R used in the present study is
similar to that described previously.3 Briefly, confluent
HUVECs monolayers were exposed to anoxia by incubation in a Plexiglas
chamber that was continuously purged (1 L/min) with an anoxic gas
mixture (93% N2, 5% CO2,
and 2% H2). To ensure an oxygen-free
environment, the gas mixture was passed through a catalytic
deoxygenator (Fisher Chemical) before entry into the chamber.
Temperature in the chamber was maintained at 37°C by a heating pad.
After a 30-minute period of anoxia, reoxygenation was
initiated by exposing the endothelial cells to room air
in a CO2-cell culture incubator (A/R). As a
control, HUVECs were identically treated except that they were exposed
to normoxia (21% O2, 5%
CO2, and 74% N2) instead
of anoxia (normoxic controls; normoxia/reoxygenation,
N/R).
PMN Adhesion Assay
Isolated neutrophils were suspended in PBS buffer and
radiolabeled by incubating the cells at 5x107
cells/mL with a 50 µCi
Na51CrO4/mL PMN suspension
at 37°C for 60 minutes. Subsequently, the cells were washed with cold
PBS to remove unincorporated radioactivity. Radiolabeled neutrophils
(1x106/well) were added to HUVEC monolayers, and
30 minutes later the percentage of added PMNs that remained adherent
after a wash procedure was quantitated using a standard
approach.3 11
Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay
HUVECs grown in 48-well plates were scraped for preparation of
nuclear extracts for electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) as
previously described.12 The double-stranded
oligonucleotide containing consensus
(5'-AGGGACTTTCCGCTGGGGACTTTCC-3') binding sites
for NF-B (provided by Dr T. Archer) was labeled with
[
-32P[ATP (Amersham Canada Ltd) by using T4
polynucleotide kinase (MBI Fermentas Inc) as previously
described.13 One picomole of the labeled
oligonucleotide was incubated with 5 µg of nuclear
protein in the presence or absence of a 50-fold excess of cold
oligonucleotide for 30 minutes, and the reaction
mixture was then loaded onto native 5% polyacrylamide gel and
electrophoresed at 250 V in 0.5x Tris-borate EDTA buffer. The
dried gels then were exposed to x-ray films (Kodak) for 16 hours in
cassettes with intensifying screens.
Nitrite/Nitrate
(NO2–/NO3–)
HUVEC production of NO was determined indirectly by
measuring
NO2–/NO3–
concentration in HUVEC supernatants as previously
described.14 Briefly, supernatants (100 µL) obtained
from HUVECs after treatments (using M199 medium without phenol red)
were collected and incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C in the presence
of 0.2 U/mL of Aspergillus nitrate reductase
(Boehringer Mannheim Canada), 50 mmol/L HEPES buffer, (pH
7.4), 5 µmol/L flavin adenine dinucleotide,
and 0.1 mmol/L NADPH. Subsequently, lactate dehydrogenase
(Boehringer Mannheim Canada) and sodium pyruvate (Sigma
Chemical Co) were added to a final concentration of 10 U/mL and 10
mmol/L, respectively, and the samples were incubated for an additional
10 minutes at 37°C. The Griess reagent was added to the samples (100
µL), and after an additional 15-minute incubation at room
temperature, absorbance was read at 540 nm. As a standard, sodium
nitrite solution (1 to 50 µmol/L) in M199 was used.
Western Blot of NOS
After treatments, HUVEC monolayers were lysed using a hot 2x
concentrated electrophoresis sample buffer (1x=125 mmol/L
Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 2% SDS, and 5% glycerol). Protein concentration of
the samples was measured using a Bio-Rad detergent-compatible
protein assay. Subsequently, ß-mercaptoethanol was added to the
samples at a final concentration of 1% vol/vol, and they were
denatured by boiling for 5 minutes. Ten micrograms of protein was
electrophoresed on 7% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred
to reinforced nitrocellulose membranes (Schleicher & Schuell, Inc)
using an electrophoretic transfer unit (Hoefer, Inc) at a constant
current of 1 A for 3 hours in a transfer buffer containing 25
mmol/L Tris, 190 mmol/L glycine, and 20% methanol. Blots were
incubated overnight in a blocking solution (3% BSA and 0.05% Tween 20
in PBS). Subsequently, the membranes were treated with mouse anti-human
endothelial NOS (eNOS) monoclonal antibody (mAb) or a
mouse anti-macrophage NOS antibody (inducible NOS [iNOS] mAb)
(Transduction Laboratories Inc). The NOS mAb binding was detected using
biotinylated anti-mouse IgG and Vectastain Elite avidin-biotin
complex–peroxidase detection system (Vector Laboratories Inc).
Reactive Oxygen Intermediates
To assess oxidant production within
endothelial cells, we used a quantitative measure of
H2O2-derived oxidant
formation by monitoring the oxidation of dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR 123)
(Molecular Probes, Inc), an oxidant-sensitive
fluorochrome.15 HUVEC monolayers were treated with DHR 123
(5 µmol/L) in phenol red-free M199 for 1 hour before
experiments. After treatments, supernatants were removed, and cells
were washed with PBS and lysed in a buffer containing 0.1% CHAPS,
50 mmol/L K2HPO4 (pH
7.0), and 0.1 mmol/L EDTA. The cell lysates were sonicated at a
30% power output for 1 minute and centrifuged at
2000g for 10 minutes at 4°C. The clarified cell sonicates
were diluted 40 times and analyzed for DHR 123 oxidation
(rhodamine fluorescence) at excitation and emission wavelengths
of 502 and 523 nm, respectively. The fluorescence intensity was
expressed as optical units per µg of cell protein.
Inhibitors
A double-stranded (ds) phosphorothioate
oligonucleotide (Bio-Synthesis, Inc) containing a
consensus NF-B binding site (sequence of the sense strand is
5'-AGGGACTTTCCGCTGGGGACTTTCC-3', and the
antisense strand represents the reverse complement) was used to
inhibit NF-B translocation to HUVEC nuclei.16 As a
control, mutant ds-phosphorothioate oligonucleotide
(sense strand 5'-ACTCACTTTCCGCTGCTCACTTTCC-3')
was used under identical conditions (mutated sites are underlined). In
addition, a proteasome inhibitor, MG 132 (MyoGenics, Inc)
was used to block NF-B activation.17 Standard NOS
inhibitors were used to assess the role of NO.
N
-nitro-L-arginine
methyl ester (L-NAME) or its inactive entionomer, D-NAME (Sigma
Chemical Co) was applied to HUVECs under various experimental
conditions using L-arginine-free M199 medium.
L-Arginine was used to counteract the effects of
L-NAME. An inhibitor of GTP-cyclohydrolase I,
2,4-diamino-6-hydroxypyrimidine (DAHP) (Sigma Chemical Co), was used in
some experiments.
Statistical Analysis
All values are presented as mean±SEM. Each experiment
was performed in triplicate. Statistical analysis was performed
using ANOVA and Student's t test (with Bonferroni
corrections for multiple comparisons). P<0.05 was
considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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In Vitro Model of I/R Tolerance
We have adapted our in vitro model of A/R-induced inflammation3 to assess some of the cellular mechanisms involved in the development of A/R tolerance in endothelial cells. Exposing HUVECs to anoxia for 30 minutes and adding neutrophils (PMNs) upon reoxygenation resulted in an increase in PMN adhesion to HUVECs (Figure 1A
). This observation
is consistent with our previous studies3 and
closely mimics the situation in vivo, in which leukocytes adhere to
venular endothelium after reperfusion of
ischemic tissues.1 2
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To mimic the in vivo models of I/R tolerance, HUVECs were exposed to a
30-minute period of anoxia and then reoxygenated for
different periods of time. Subsequently, HUVECs were exposed to a
second A/R challenge, at which time PMN adhesion to HUVECs was
assessed. As shown in Figure 1A
, when HUVECs were exposed to an
A/R insult and then subsequently challenged with a second A/R insult
(24 hours later), the level of PMN adhesion to HUVECs after the second
A/R insult was similar to that observed in normoxic controls. This
decrease in PMN adhesion was not due to an adverse effect on
endothelial cell viability (trypan blue exclusion).
These findings indicate that HUVECs mounted an adaptational response to
the first A/R insult, which prevented the hyperadhesion of PMNs to
HUVECs after the second challenge. We have termed this adaptational
response "A/R tolerance."
Further characterization experiments indicated that the A/R tolerance
(with respect to PMN adhesion to HUVECs) did not occur if the hiatus
between the 2 A/R challenges was reduced to 1 or 6 hours (Figure 1B). These latter observations suggested that a transcriptional
event may be involved in the development of A/R tolerance in our model.
We focused our attention on the nuclear transcription factor NF-B,
which has been implicated in the regulation of number of genes whose
products modulate inflammation.18 19
Role of NF-B in the Development of A/R Tolerance
To assess whether A/R activates NF-B and, thereby,
promotes its translocation to the nuclei of HUVECs, we used an EMSA to
detect NF-B in nuclear extracts of HUVECs obtained at different
times after the initial A/R insult. As shown in Figure 2A, there was no significant increase in
HUVEC nuclear NF-B at 30 minutes after
reoxygenation. Since PMN adhesion increased within 30
minutes after reoxygenation, these findings indicate
that it is unlikely that NF-B plays a role in the hyperadhesive
response to the initial A/R challenge in our model. However, NF-B
was present in the nuclei of HUVECs by 4 hours after the initial
A/R insult and, therefore, may be involved in the development of A/R
tolerance.
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(pt)NF-
To assess whether activation of NF-B plays a role in the development
of A/R tolerance, we used 2 experimental approaches. First, we
pretreated HUVECs with a proteasome inhibitor (MG 132) that
has previously been shown to inhibit NF-B activation.17
MG 132 was added to HUVECs 30 minutes before the initial A/R insult and
removed 30 minutes after reoxygenation. As shown in
Figure 2B, this maneuver prevented the development of
A/R tolerance; ie, PMN adhesion to HUVECs after the second A/R insult
was similar to that observed after an A/R insult imposed on nontolerant
cells (N/R, A/R in Figure 2B). Pretreatment of HUVECs with MG
132 alone (no initial A/R challenge) did not affect the increase in PMN
adhesion induced by an A/R challenge imposed 24 hours later (data not
shown). Another approach was to pretreat HUVECs with a phosphorothioate
oligonucleotide, (pt)NF-B, containing a consensus
binding sequence for NF-B for 3 hours before the initial A/R
challenge. This maneuver has previously been shown to inhibit NF-B
translocation to HUVEC nuclei.16 As shown in Figure 2B, (pt)NF-B was just as effective as the proteasome
inhibitor in preventing the development of A/R tolerance.
Pretreatment with a mutated (pt)NF-B oligonucleotide
was ineffective in preventing the development of A/R tolerance. These 2
approaches have previously been shown to be effective in preventing the
translocation of NF-B to nuclei of HUVECs exposed to
A/R.4 In addition, in the present study these 2
inhibitors prevented NF-B appearance in HUVEC nuclei 4
hours after the initial A/R challenge (data not shown).
Role of NOS in the Development of A/R Tolerance
One anti-inflammatory gene that is activated by NF-B is
the one encoding iNOS. NOS is responsible for the production of
NO, a potent endogenous inhibitor of PMN
adhesion to endothelium.20 To assess
whether NO may play a role in the development of A/R tolerance, we
measured the concentration of
NO2–/NO3–
(Griess reaction) in supernatants obtained from HUVECs 30 minutes after
an A/R challenge. As shown in Figure 3A, the
NO2–/NO3–
concentration in supernatants of HUVECs exposed to an initial A/R
challenge were not different from those observed in normoxic controls.
However,
NO2–/NO3–
levels were increased in response to an A/R challenge imposed on
tolerant HUVECs (exposed to an initial A/R challenge 24 hours
previously).
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Since NO production was increased in tolerant HUVECs, we
assessed the role of NO in the development of A/R tolerance. L-NAME, an
NOS inhibitor, was added to HUVECs before the A/R
challenges. As shown in Figure 3B, L-NAME had no effect on basal
PMN adhesion to HUVECs (normoxic controls) or the hyperadhesion induced
after the initial A/R insult. However, L-NAME prevented the A/R
tolerance with respect to PMN adhesion (ie, the decreased adhesion
response usually noted after the second A/R challenge was no longer
observed). The coadministration of L-arginine prevented
this effect of L-NAME. D-NAME had no effect on the A/R-induced PMN
adhesion to HUVECs in tolerant cells. Taken together, these findings
indicate that the generation of NO by HUVEC NOS plays an important role
in the development of tolerance with respect to PMN adhesion.
To determine whether extracellularly generated NO could be as effective
as intracellularly generated NO in preventing PMN adhesion to HUVECs,
we used a NO donor. Spermine NONOate (Molecular Probes; 0.1
mmol/L final concentration) was added along with the PMNs after the
initial A/R challenge, and PMN adhesion was assessed. Although
spermine NONOate increased the concentration of
NO2–/NO3–
in the supernatant (Griess reaction) to levels (16 µmol/L)
greater than those observed after the second A/R challenge (Figure 3), the NO donor did not prevent the A/R-induced increase in PMN
adhesion to HUVECs (Figure 4).
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Western blot analyses of HUVECs under basal conditions
(normoxic controls) or after A/R challenges indicated that HUVECs lack
iNOS (data not shown). This observation confirms previous reports that
HUVECs do not contain iNOS.21 By contrast, constitutive
eNOS was present both under basal conditions and after the A/R
challenges (Figure 5). Interestingly,
eNOS protein was increased after an A/R challenge to both nontolerant
and tolerant HUVECs. From the data presented in Figure 5, it appears that the increase in eNOS protein induced by the
initial A/R insult had returned to near basal levels within 24 hours
and that the second A/R challenge induced a comparable increase in eNOS
protein as observed after the initial A/R insult.
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Role of Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) in the Development of
A/R Tolerance
Previous studies have indicated that BH4 is
an important co-factor for eNOS activity in HUVECs.21 22
BH4 is synthesized by 2 pathways, which are de
novo synthesis from GTP and a pterin salvage pathway that regenerates
BH4 from dihydrobiopterin.22 23 The
rate-limiting step in the de novo synthesis pathway involves the enzyme
GTP-cyclohydrolase I. Thus, we assessed the effects of DAHP, an
inhibitor of GTP-cyclohydrolase I, on NO production
by HUVECs. As shown in Figure 6, pretreatment of HUVECs with DAHP (5 mmol/L) dramatically reduced
NO production by HUVECs under basal conditions (normoxic
controls) and after an A/R insult imposed on naive or tolerant HUVECs.
The reduced NO production was not due to a DAHP-induced adverse
effect on HUVEC viability (trypan blue exclusion). These findings
indicate that NO production under basal conditions and after
the initial A/R insult are dependent on BH4
synthesis by GTP-cyclohydrolase I. More importantly, the increase in NO
production usually observed after the second A/R challenge was
completely abolished.
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Interaction of NO With Oxidants
Supernatants from A/R-conditioned HUVECs can increase PMN adhesion
to naive HUVECs, an effect prevented by coadministration of catalase in
the adhesion assay.3 Furthermore, exogenous administration
of oxidants to endothelial cells can promote PMN
adhesion.2 Taken together these observations indicated
that exposing HUVECs to A/R induces an oxidant stress within HUVECs,
which may promote PMN adhesion to HUVECs. Thus, 1 possible explanation
for why HUVECs become tolerant to a second A/R challenge may be that
HUVECs are subjected to less oxidant stress during the second
challenge. To test this hypothesis, HUVECs were preloaded with DHR 123
for 1 hour before challenge with A/R. As shown in Figure 7A, the first A/R challenge was
associated with an increase in DHR 123 oxidation, indicating that an
intracellular oxidant stress occurred in HUVECs. By contrast, DHR 123
oxidation was not increased by the second A/R challenge imposed 24
hours after the initial A/R insult. DHR 123 uptake by HUVECs was the
same when loaded before the first or second A/R challenge. These
findings indicate that the development of A/R tolerance is associated
with a decrease in the ability of A/R to generate an oxidant stress in
HUVECs.
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Previous studies indicate that NO can interact with
oxidants.24 25 Thus, we next tested the possibility that
NO generated during the second A/R challenge was involved in reducing
the oxidant stress incurred during the second A/R challenge. As shown
in Figure 7B, administration of L-NAME during the initial A/R
insult had no effect on DHR 123 oxidation. However, the presence of
L-NAME during the second A/R challenge prevented the decrease in DHR
123 oxidation typically seen after the second challenge (compare
with Figure 7A).
To assess whether the increased NO production and the
suppression of oxidative stress observed in HUVECs after the second A/R
challenge was mediated by NF-B, we used the proteasome
inhibitor MG 132. The proteasome inhibitor was
added to HUVECs 30 minutes before the initial A/R insult and removed 30
minutes after reoxygenation. After the second A/R
challenge either
NO2–/NO3–
levels in the supernatant were measured (Griess reaction) or oxidant
stress in HUVECs was assessed (DHR 123 oxidation). As shown in Figure 8A, pretreatment with MG 132 ameliorated
the increase in
NO2–/NO3–
levels typically seen after the second A/R challenge. In addition, the
suppression in oxidative stress typically noted after the second A/R
challenge did not occur (Figure 8B).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Exposure of HUVECs to A/R (30 minutes of anoxia and 30 minutes of reoxygenation) results in an increase in PMN adhesion to HUVECs.1 3 This endothelial cell response to A/R is not due to an increase in HUVEC adhesivity (ie, surface levels of adhesion molecules, such as the cytokine-regulated intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin are not increased).3 Rather, this hyperadhesive response is due to soluble factors produced and released by the endothelial cells (H2O2 and PAF), which subsequently activate PMNs and enhance their ability to adhere to HUVECs. In the present study, we provide evidence that HUVECs can develop A/R tolerance with respect to A/R-induced PMN adhesion to HUVECs. Our findings indicate that the A/R-induced increase in PMN adhesion to HUVECs can be completely abolished by pretreating HUVECs with an A/R challenge 24 hours previously (Figure 1
). This
adaptational response requires more than 6 hours to develop (Figure 1B), indicating that some transcriptional event may be
involved.
We focused our attention on the nuclear transcription factor NF-B,
since it regulates the activity of a variety of genes whose
products modulate inflammation.18 19 26 For example,
activation of NF-B leads to the transactivation of proinflammatory
genes, such as those encoding (1) endothelial adhesion
molecules involved in PMN adhesion to endothelial cells
and (2) cytokines and growth factors.18 However,
more relevant to the development of A/R tolerance in our model are the
anti-inflammatory genes activated by NF-B. The potential
anti-inflammatory effects of NF-B activation, coupled to the ability
of PAF and H2O2 (factors
implicated in the increased PMN adhesion to HUVECs in our model of A/R)
to activate NF-B, prompted us to assess the potential role
of NF-B in the development of A/R tolerance in our system.
In endothelial cells, NF-B exists as a heterodimer
consisting of subunits designated as p50 and p65. It is localized to
the cytoplasm in an inactive form by virtue of its association with a
monomeric inhibitory protein, IB. Activation of NF-B
occurs by phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and
subsequent degradation of IB by the proteasome, a multicatalytic
protease.18 19 The loss of IB allows the NF-B
heterodimer to translocate to the nucleus and initiate the
transcription of genes regulating the inflammatory process. As shown in
Figure 2A, NF-B is activated by the initial A/R
insult, since it appears within HUVEC nuclei within 4 hours.
Furthermore, a proteasome inhibitor (MG 132), which has
been shown to inhibit activation of NF-B in HUVECs,17
prevented the development of A/R tolerance with respect to PMN adhesion
to HUVECs (Figure 2B). Finally, interfering with NF-B
translocation to the nuclei by using a double-stranded
oligonucleotide containing NF-B binding
sites16 also prevented the development of A/R tolerance
(Figure 2B). Taken together, our findings indicate that
activation and translocation of NF-B to the nuclei of HUVECs is an
important component of the development of A/R tolerance. Interestingly,
NF-B was detected in HUVEC nuclei at 4 hours after the initial A/R
challenge (Figure 2A), whereas the development of A/R tolerance
with respect to PMN adhesion was not detected as late as 6 hours after
the initial A/R challenge (Figure 1B). The reason for the delay
in the development of A/R tolerance is not clear, but delay may be due
to the time required for NF-B to induce transactivation of relevant
gene(s) and subsequent protein synthesis.
The gene(s) that NF-B transactivates within HUVECs in order
for the anti-inflammatory phenotype to be manifested in
A/R-tolerant cells (decreased PMN adhesion) is unclear. Since NO is an
endogenous antiadhesive molecule, genes regulating NO
production are possible candidates. Thus, we first examined the
possibility that an increased production of NO was involved in
the development of A/R tolerance. Our findings indicate that, while the
first A/R insult is not associated with increased NO
production, the second A/R challenge is (Figure 3A).
Furthermore, inhibition of NOS activity with L-NAME during the second
A/R challenge prevented the development of A/R tolerance with respect
to PMN adhesion to HUVECs (Figure 3B). These findings indicate that an
increase in NO production during the second A/R challenge
contributes to the manifestation of A/R tolerance.
One likely gene target for NF-B that would enhance NO
production during the second A/R challenge is iNOS, which
contains NF-B–binding sites in its promoter region27
and is transactivated by NF-B.18 However,
Western blot analyses indicated that iNOS was not present
in HUVECs under basal conditions or after challenge with A/R. These
observations are consistent with a previous report indicating
that HUVECs do not contain iNOS.21 On the other hand, eNOS
was present under basal conditions and was increased by both the
initial and second A/R challenges (Figure 5). The mechanisms
involved in the A/R-induced increase in eNOS protein observed in the
present study are unclear. Previous reports have noted that eNOS
message and protein can be increased by mechanical,28
shear,29 and oxidative30 stresses applied to
endothelial cells. The modulation of eNOS message and
protein levels appear to involve transcriptional28 29 30
and/or posttranscriptional28 events. Thus, it could be
argued that the development of A/R tolerance involves NF-B-induced
transcription of eNOS. That this is most likely not the case is based
on the following lines of evidence. First, although SP-1 and
activator protein-1–binding elements have been identified
in the promoter region of the human eNOS gene,31 32 there
does not appear to be an NF-B–binding site on the gene encoding
eNOS. Second, while eNOS protein is increased within 30 minutes of
reoxygenation (Figure 5), there is no detectable
NF-B in the nucleus at this time (Figure 2). Third, although
eNOS protein was increased during the initial A/R (Figure 5),
there was no corresponding increase in NO production (Figure 3A). Thus, the NF-B-mediated development of A/R tolerance
(with respect to NO production and PMN adhesion) most likely
involves some other transcriptional event besides induction of
eNOS.
BH4 is an important cofactor for NOS activity. In
the present study, inhibition of GTP-cyclohydrolase I, the enzyme
responsible for the de novo synthesis of BH4,
completely abolished NO synthesis by HUVECs (Figure 6). Of
particular relevance to the present study is the observation that
the gene encoding for GTP-cyclohydrolase I contains an NF-B–binding
site in the promoter region.33 In addition,
cytokine-induced NO production by
endothelial cells,21
myocytes,34 and smooth muscle cells23 is
dependent on GTP-cyclohydrolase I activity. Thus, taken together, our
findings suggest that NF-B may contribute to the development of A/R
tolerance by transactivating the gene encoding GTP-cyclohydrolase I.
Further studies are warranted to more directly address this
possibility.
One interesting observation in the present study was that there
appears to be an interaction between NO and oxidants in HUVECs during
the development of A/R tolerance. The initial A/R induced an oxidant
stress, while the subsequent A/R challenge did not (Figure 7A).
Furthermore, with addition of the NOS inhibitor (L-NAME)
during the second A/R challenge, the degree of A/R-induced oxidant
stress was similar to that observed after the initial A/R challenge.
These findings indicate that the increased NO production during
the second A/R challenge reduces the oxidant stress typically induced
by A/R. This contention is consistent with other reports
showing that, when NO production exceeds oxidant
production, oxidant-mediated lipid peroxidation25
or hydroxylation of benzoate24 is substantially inhibited.
It is not entirely clear whether the decreased PMN adhesion to
A/R-tolerant HUVECs is due directly to an increased NO
production or the fact that NO decreases the oxidant stress.
However, since exogenous generation of NO (NO donor; spermine
NONOate) during the initial A/R challenge did not prevent the
hyperadhesion response (Figure 4), it is unlikely that NO
directly inhibits PMN adhesion to HUVECs. Thus, the most likely
explanation for our findings is that intracellularly generated NO
inhibits PMN adhesion during the second A/R challenge by reducing the
oxidant stress.
Figure 9 schematically depicts our
working hypothesis on the mechanisms involved in the development of A/R
tolerance in HUVECs. We propose that after the initial A/R insult an
oxidant stress is generated within HUVECs that leads to an increase in
PMN adhesion to HUVECs (Figures 1 and 7). On the basis of
our previous studies and those of others, it is likely that
H2O2 plays an important
role in this hyperadhesion via generation of PAF.1 2 In
addition, the initial A/R insult induces a transcriptional event that
leads to the development of A/R tolerance with respect to A/R-induced
PMN adhesion to HUVECs. Specifically, NF-B is activated and
translocates to the nucleus (Figure 2). NF-B then promotes
the transcription of a relevant gene(s), which results in an increase
in NO production by eNOS during the second A/R challenge. Our
preliminary findings (inhibitor studies) indicate that
NF-B may transactivate the gene encoding GTP-cyclohydrolase
I, which subsequently results in the synthesis of
BH4, an important cofactor for eNOS activity
(Figure 6). The increase in NO production during the
second A/R challenge prevents the oxidant stress within HUVECs (Figures 7 and 8). The decrease in PMN adhesion to HUVECs after
the second A/R challenge may be a result of the lack of an oxidant
stress and associated PAF production. In the present study
we also provide evidence that NF-B is involved in the increased NO
production and the suppression of the A/R-induced oxidant
stress (Figure 8). Although the results of the present study
support various aspects of this working hypothesis, further studies are
necessary to firmly establish the relative roles of various proposed
factors in the development of A/R tolerance.
|
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This work was supported by grants MT-13668 and MT-12902 from the Medical Research Council of Canada. We thank Dr Trevor Archer, London Regional Cancer Center, for the synthesis of NF-
B
oligonucleotides and Ronald Noseworthy for
technical assistance. Received June 2, 1998; accepted October 10, 1998.
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