© 1998 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Oscillatory Shear Stress Stimulates Adhesion Molecule Expression in Cultured Human Endothelium
From the Division of Cardiology (D.C.C., R.M.M., R.W.A.), Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Ga, and the School of Mechanical Engineering (S.E.V., R.M.N.), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.
Correspondence to David C. Chappell, PhD, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, PO Drawer LL, Atlanta, GA.
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Low and oscillatory shear stresses are major features of the hemodynamic environment of sites opposite arterial flow dividers that are predisposed to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a focal inflammatory disease characterized initially by the recruitment of mononuclear cells into the arterial wall. The specific characteristics of the hemodynamic environment that facilitate the generation of arterial inflammatory responses in the presence of, for example, hyperlipidemia are unknown. We show here that prolonged oscillatory shear stress induces expression of endothelial cell leukocyte adhesion molecules, which are centrally important in mediating leukocyte localization into the arterial wall. Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 was upregulated an average 9-fold relative to endothelial monolayers in static culture. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin exhibited 11-fold and 7.5-fold increases, respectively. Upregulation of these adhesion molecules was associated with enhanced monocyte adherence. Cytokine stimulation of surface vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 was maximally induced after 6 and 8 hours of cytokine incubation. Oscillatory shear stress for these time periods elicited respective vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 levels of 16% and 30% relative to those observed for cytokine stimulation. Surface intercellular adhesion molecule-1 induction by cytokine stimulation for 24 hours was found to be approximately five times the level detected after 24 hours of oscillatory shear stress. Experiments performed in the presence of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine demonstrated that the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 could be almost totally abolished, whereas that of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was typically reduced by
70%. These results imply that oscillatory shear stress per se is
sufficient to stimulate mononuclear leukocyte adhesion and,
presumptively, migration into the arterial wall. These
results further indicate that atherosclerotic lesion initiation is
likely related, at least in part, to unique signals generated by
oscillatory shear stress and that the mechanism of upregulation is, to
some extent, redox sensitive.
Key Words: flow • endothelium • monocyte • adherence • immunofluorescence
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Introduction |
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Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the vasculature and, initially, is highly focal in nature, occurring primarily in regions of branching and at bifurcations. It has been shown1 2 that the occurrence of atherosclerotic lesions in the human carotid bifurcation and the abdominal aorta strongly correlates with low shear regions experiencing an almost purely oscillatory flow. It was found that marked intimal thickening was most extensive along the outer wall of the carotid sinus, where the mean shear stress was low, and the instantaneous shear stress was calculated to oscillate between -7 and +4 dynes/cm2.
One of the initial events in atherogenesis is the adherence of mononuclear leukocytes to the endothelial cell surface.3 This binding phenomenon is mediated, at least in part, by adhesion molecules,4 particularly VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and, to a lesser extent, E-selectin. Hemodynamic forces influence the vascular wall and, in particular, endothelial cell functions, including elongation and alignment in the direction of flow,5 increased release of both prostacyclin6 and nitric oxide,7 and a decrease in the rate of endothelial cell proliferation.8 Our concurrent studies show9 10 that exposure of HUVEC monolayers, in vitro, to a steady laminar shear stress of 5 dynes/cm2 for 24 hours produces almost complete inhibition of the post–shear stress cytokine-stimulated expression of VCAM-1 relative to that detected on cytokine-stimulated statically maintained monolayers. This decrease in adhesion molecule expression correlated with a reduction in the number of monocytes bound to the previously sheared monolayers. Although these observations may help to explain the relative protective effect of steady shear stress against development of atherosclerosis, there are few data addressing the issue of how oscillating flow may contribute to lesion formation. In an attempt to examine this aspect of the hemodynamic environment thought to exist at flow dividers in vivo, we have designed a system to determine the possible biological significance of an almost purely oscillatory shear stress. In the present study, the effect of oscillatory shear stress on the level of adhesion molecules expressed by HUVEC monolayers in vitro, both in the presence and absence of the antioxidant NAC, was investigated.
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Materials and Methods |
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Cell Culture
Primary HUVECs were obtained from Clonetics Corp, grown in tissue culture dishes, and maintained with medium 199 (GIBCO Laboratories) containing L-glutamine (2 mmol/L) and supplemented with 50 IU/mL penicillin G (GIBCO), 50 µg/mL streptomycin (GIBCO), 16 U/mL heparin (Sigma Chemical Co), 50 µg/mL endothelial cell growth supplement (Biomedical Technologies Inc), and 20% (vol/vol) fetal bovine serum (Intergen Co). This mixture constituted HUVEC culture medium. HUVECs were cultured in a humidified incubator that provided an atmosphere of 95% air/5% CO2 at 37°C. Cells were detached from their substratum using versene (0.2 g/L EDTA · 4Na in PBS, GIBCO), subcultured at a 1:3 ratio, and used up to the fifth passage. In order to assist cell deposition, rectangular plastic slides were coated with 0.1% (wt/vol) sterile aqueous gelatin solution, followed by seeding the cells onto the slides. The medium was changed every 2 days, and flow experiments were initiated 1 day after cells had reached confluence. Cells for use as statically maintained samples were plated similarly. The cells of the human monocytic leukemia cell line THP-1, obtained from American Type Culture Collection, were cultured using RPMI 1640 medium (GIBCO) containing L-glutamine (2 mmol/L) and 10% (vol/vol) fetal bovine serum as well as the same amounts of penicillin and streptomycin as used for HUVECs. Cells were maintained at a density of 2.5x105 cells/mL.
Flow System
The flow system used has been described
elsewhere.11 12 In brief, the plastic slide
containing the monolayer was inserted into a parallel-plate flow
chamber that was installed between an upper and lower reservoir
connected by tubing. A motor-driven syringe pump was inserted into this
system in order to generate the longitudinal oscillatory motion. This
oscillatory component allowed pulsatility to be superimposed on the
steady flow via a displacement of the medium back and forth above the
endothelial cell surface. In order to dampen the motion
so as to ensure a sinusoidal waveform, a small reservoir was placed
between the syringe and the flow chamber. The frequency and amplitude
of the oscillatory flow were controlled by adjusting the speed of the
motor and by changing the amplitude of the syringe motion,
respectively. The pulsatile flow rate was monitored using an
electromagnetic flowmeter probe, calibrated with an in-line flowmeter.
The endothelial monolayers were subjected to a very low
mean shear stress, with instantaneous oscillatory shear stresses
between +5 and –5 dynes/cm2, at a periodicity of
1 Hz. This frequency was chosen to approximate the normal resting heart
rate. A very small forward flow was allowed (which produced a mean
shear stress of 0.2 dyne/cm2), in order to
provide for the delivery of nutrients and for the removal of
potentially toxic substances released by the cells. This regime was
imposed for 24 hours. Subsequently, the endothelial
cells were rinsed with 0.15 mol/L PBS and isolated, followed by assay
for VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin expression using
immunofluorescent flow cytometry. Some experiments were
performed in which endothelial monolayers were
subjected to oscillatory shear for 24 hours using medium containing
20 mmol/L NAC (Sigma) after pretreatment under static conditions
for 30 minutes. This cell-permeant antioxidant has been
reported13 14 to increase the intracellular
glutathione content of various cell types. The object of these
experiments was to determine the effect of the antioxidant, in
combination with the oscillatory shear stress stimulus, on the adhesion
molecule expression. The statically maintained controls were incubated
with the antioxidant for 24 hours before assay. Experiments were also
performed in which HUVEC monolayers were subjected to a nonreversing
pulsatile flow of 5±5 dynes/cm2, also at a
frequency of 1 Hz. This flow type is achieved by allowing a steady flow
of 5 dynes/cm2 and superimposing an oscillatory
component using the syringe pump as previously described.
Adhesion Molecule Analysis
The flow cytometric procedure has been described
elsewhere.15 Briefly, after detachment of the
cells from their substratum, the cells were incubated with 10 µg/mL
of the respective primary monoclonal antibody in HUVEC culture medium
for 30 minutes at 4°C (mouse anti-human VCAM-1, mouse anti-human
ICAM-1, or mouse anti-human E-selectin, R & D Systems). Cells were then
washed and spun (500g for 5 minutes), and the pellet was
incubated with 25 µg/mL fluorescein-conjugated goat
anti-mouse IgG F(ab')2 fragment (Chemicon). Cells
were then washed and fixed with paraformaldehyde in PBS
at a final concentration of 1% (wt/vol). Replicate cells maintained in
static culture were similarly processed for use as control specimens.
Sets of these cells were processed using a nonbinding primary antibody
(mouse anti-neurofilament monoclonal antibody, Sigma) to serve as a
control for nonspecific binding. The relative levels of cell surface
fluorescently labeled protein were quantified by
immunofluorescent flow cytometry with log amplification using a
fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACScan IV, Becton
Dickinson). The nonspecific binding control was used as a reference
sample.
Northern Blot Analysis
Extraction of total cellular RNA was achieved using TriPure
reagent (Boehringer-Mannheim), and 20 µg aliquots were
size-fractionated using 1% agarose-formaldehyde gels containing 1
µg/mL ethidium bromide. The RNA was then transferred to a
nitrocellulose filter and covalently linked by ultraviolet irradiation
using a Stratalinker UV cross-linker (Stratagene Inc). Approximately
106 cpm/mL of 32P-labeled
probes were used per hybridization, which was performed at 68°C for 1
hour in QuickHyb solution (Stratagene). Subsequent to hybridization,
filters were washed with a final stringency of 0.2x SSC at 60°C for
30 minutes.
Monocyte Adhesion Assay
The human monocyte leukemia cell line
THP-116 17 was used in the adhesion assay as a
model of the human monocyte. The assay protocol was adapted from a
documented procedure.18 In brief, 50 µg of
BCECF-AM (Molecular Probes Inc) was dissolved in 50 µL dimethyl
sulfoxide. THP-1 cells were resuspended in protein-free HUVEC culture
medium at a concentration of 5x105 cells/mL.
Probe solution was added (5 µL/mL of medium), and the mixture was
incubated at 37°C for 45 minutes with frequent agitation. Cells were
centrifuged, aspirated, and resuspended in fresh protein-free
medium. Culture medium was removed from the HUVEC monolayers, and the
latter were rinsed with 0.15 mol/L PBS. The fluorescently
labeled THP-1 cell suspension was added to the monolayers, and the
mixture was incubated at 37°C for 45 minutes. The monolayers were
then rinsed three times with 0.15 mol/L PBS, followed by fixation (2%
[wt/vol] paraformaldehyde/PBS) and mounting with a
glass coverslip using 50% (vol/vol) glycerol/PBS. The plates were
visualized via fluorescence microscopy, and adherent THP-1
cells were counted using 25 high-power representative
fields on each plate and expressed as the number of cells bound
per mm2 endothelium.
Percentages were expressed as mean±SD.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical analyses were performed by using an unpaired
t test.
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Results |
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Adhesion Molecule Expression
Fig 1A
, 2A, and 3A
represent the flow cytometric histograms for assay of VCAM-1,
ICAM-1, and E-selectin, respectively. The cells, which were
preconditioned by oscillatory flow, exhibit an increased MPFI relative
to statically maintained monolayers. This increase is indicative of
enhanced expression of the respective adhesion molecules. In the case
of VCAM-1, it was observed that the percentage of cells that exhibited
enhanced expression was 91±4%. For ICAM-1 and E-selectin, the
percentages were 94±3% and 74±6%, respectively.
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Exposure of the endothelial monolayers to the
oscillatory flow regime for 24 hours, produced an average 9-fold
upregulation of the expression of VCAM-1 relative to that present
on statically maintained unstimulated monolayers. The mean level
detected on the sheared samples was found to be 56% of that
present on the statically cultured cytokine (IL-1ß, 10
U/mL, 6 hours)–stimulated monolayers (Fig 1B
). HUVECs were found to
exhibit a moderate constitutive expression of ICAM-1, and this level
was increased by an average 11-fold when subjected to the oscillatory
flow regime. The amount detected on the oscillatory
shear–preconditioned specimens was observed to be 52% of that found
on statically maintained, cytokine-stimulated monolayers (Fig 2B). For E-selectin, the level detected on the flow preconditioned
endothelial monolayers was found to be increased
7.5-fold relative to cells maintained in static culture. This level was
observed to be 53% of that detected on the cytokine-stimulated
monolayers (Fig 3B). Monolayers preconditioned with oscillatory shear
for 24 hours followed by stimulation with IL-1ß (10 U/mL) for 6 hours
produced no significant change in either VCAM-1 or ICAM-1 surface
expression relative to that observed for stimulated statically
maintained control cells (Tables 1 and 2).
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In order to determine whether oscillatory shear stress promoted the
autocrine activation of the HUVEC monolayers by release of stimulatory
agents, conditioned effluent medium was extracted from oscillatory flow
experimental systems (after 6 and 24 hours of oscillatory flow) and was
incubated with sets of statically maintained HUVEC monolayers for
periods of 3, 6, and 24 hours. The cells were then processed and
analyzed for adhesion molecule expression as described. For the
assay of VCAM-1, the MPFI values for cells incubated statically for
periods of 3, 6, and 24 hours with conditioned medium extracted after
24 hours of oscillatory flow were observed to be 5±1 (n=4), 4±2
(n=3), and 3±2 (n=4), respectively (compare with Fig 1B). In the case
of ICAM-1, the MPFI values were found to be 17±2 (n=3), 14±4 (n=3),
and 12±3 (n=3) respectively (compare with Fig 2B). These data show
that in HUVECs treated with conditioned medium from cells exposed to
oscillatory shear, there were no increases in the level of the adhesion
molecules compared with control samples. Moreover, there is no evidence
for bacterial or endotoxin contamination in this model system. Similar
results were obtained when it was further investigated whether the
effect of the shear regime could be to induce the surface expression of
IL-1
, which may, in turn, upregulate adhesion molecule expression.
Oscillatory presheared endothelial monolayers as well
as isolated cells were treated with goat anti-human IL-1 (R & D
Systems), followed by the fluorescent secondary antibody.
Examination of the monolayer en face as well as assay of the isolated
cells by flow cytometry showed no significant increases in
fluorescence output relative to control levels (data not
shown).
The upregulation of VCAM-1 expression by oscillatory flow could be
almost totally abolished when the cells were sheared in the presence of
20 mmol/L NAC. This phenomenon was also observed for statically
maintained monolayers incubated with NAC for 24 hours, followed by
IL-1ß (10 U/mL) for 6 hours as well as monolayers presheared in the
presence of NAC followed by IL-1ß stimulation (Table 1). Northern
blot analysis of VCAM-1 mRNA derived from HUVEC monolayers
previously subjected to oscillatory flow for periods of 4, 6, 8, 16,
and 24 hours in the presence of NAC showed no induction of VCAM-1 mRNA
(data not shown). This indicates that the inhibitory action
of NAC is probably occurring at the transcriptional level. This finding
is similar to that seen for cytokine-treated human
endothelial cells.19 The ICAM-1
level present on the endothelial cell surface after
oscillatory flow conditioning in the presence of NAC was decreased by
70% relative to that observed for oscillatory flow in the absence
of NAC. This reduction is similar to that detected for statically
maintained monolayers incubated with NAC for 24 hours followed by
IL-1ß stimulation for 6 hours, as well as that observed for
monolayers presheared in the presence of NAC followed by IL-1ß (10
U/mL) stimulation for 6 hours (Table 2).
In order to determine whether the very small forward flow component, present in the oscillatory shear regimen, could produce the observed effects, HUVEC monolayers were exposed to steady laminar flow for 24 hours at a shear stress of 0.2 dyne/cm2. The cells were then analyzed for adhesion molecule expression as previously described. For VCAM-1, the MPFI was 9±3 (n=4) compared with 4±1 for static cells. In the case of ICAM-1, the MPFI was 27±5 (n=3) compared with 15±4 for static cells. Further experiments in which monolayers were exposed to laminar shear stress at 2 dynes/cm2 for 24 hours elicited no increases in the levels of either VCAM-1 or ICAM-1 relative to static control cells (VCAM-1 MPFI was 7±2 [n=3]; ICAM-1 was 19±5 [n=3]).
Northern blot analysis of homogenates obtained from
HUVEC monolayers subjected to oscillatory shear stress for a
range of time periods is shown in Fig 4.
The level of mRNA detected after 8 hours of shear is not significantly
altered up to 24 hours of shear stress. One possible interpretation of
this result is that the flow regime could decrease turnover of VCAM-1
protein. HUVEC monolayers exposed to pulsatile shear stress of 5±5
dynes/cm2, ie, flow containing an oscillatory
component but with no flow reversal, did not induce either VCAM-1 mRNA
or surface VCAM-1 expression for all time periods up to 24 hours.
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The time course of oscillatory flow and IL-1ß induction of
VCAM-1 (Fig 5) indicates that
cytokine induced surface VCAM-1 expression peaks at 6 to 8
hours. The levels of VCAM-1 elicited by oscillatory shear
stress at these times are 16% and 30% of those peak
values for IL-1ß. VCAM-1 protein levels decrease after 16 hours of
stimulation and are further reduced at 24 hours. Oscillatory
flow–induced VCAM-1 surface expression increases 3-fold after 8 hours
of shear stress relative to that observed at 6 hours of flow. This is
consistent with the Northern blot data indicating that mRNA
VCAM-1 levels peak after 4 to 6 hours of oscillatory shear stress
(compare with Fig 4). The time course of ICAM-1 induction (Fig 6) shows increasing levels of ICAM-1 with
increasing duration of stimulation either by oscillatory shear stress
or by IL-1ß. The level of surface ICAM-1 after IL-1ß stimulation
for 24 hours was found to be approximately five times that detected for
24 hours of oscillatory shear stress. Since it is likely that ICAM-1
induction does not peak at 24 hours of stimulation, as suggested by the
Northern blot analysis, it is difficult to ascertain whether
there is an altered rate of protein degradation in this case.
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Monocyte Adhesion
The results from the THP-1 cell adhesion assay (Fig 7) indicate that the increases in
adhesion molecule expression after oscillatory shear preconditioning
are associated with an increase in THP-1 cell adherence. It was found
that relative to the statically cultured endothelial
cells, the preconditioned monolayers exhibited a 10-fold mean
enhancement in binding. This level of adherence was observed to be
30% of that detected for the cytokine-stimulated
monolayers. Antibody blocking studies of the monolayers presheared for
24 hours, using a combination of anti-human VCAM-1 (40 µg/mL) and
anti-human ICAM-1 (40 µg/mL), showed a decrease in the level of
monocyte adherence of 71±5% relative to that for untreated presheared
monolayers.
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Previous studies in which endothelial cell monolayers were subjected to shear containing a reversed flow component have focused on alterations in the morphology11 and c-fos expression20 of the cells, as well as modulation of cell-matrix attachment proteins.12 The present study indicates that oscillatory flow, imposed in an in vitro environment, has the capacity to induce adhesion molecule expression on HUVECs. The results suggest that areas of endothelium experiencing oscillatory flow in vivo may express enhanced levels of surface VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin. The observations are consistent with the evidence that areas of presumed oscillatory flow in vivo exhibit recruitment of circulating monocytes that may contribute to plaque formation. Thus, the increased particle residence time,21 which was due to the extremely low positive flow, may not be the sole factor accounting for the occurrence of enhanced monocyte binding at susceptible areas of the vasculature. An active signal generated by the oscillatory flow pattern appears likely to be involved.
The data from the study to determine whether autocrine activation of the cells was occurring provide additional evidence that the imposition of oscillatory flow directly modifies intracellular signaling mechanisms, leading to enhanced adhesion molecule expression. These data mitigate against the possibility that the in vitro oscillatory flow system stimulates production of cytokine that could enhance adhesion molecule expression through an autocrine or paracrine mechanism. Since it was found that very low steady shear stresses did not have significant effects on the upregulation of the adhesion molecules studied, it may be concluded, therefore, that the observed effects are a result of the oscillatory shear regime. Furthermore, the induction of adhesion molecule expression appears to be functionally significant, since THP-1 cell adhesion is markedly enhanced, and the extent of binding can be dramatically reduced by prior treatment with antibodies to both VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. E-Selectin is known to contribute to the rolling phenomenon22 exhibited by circulating polymorphonuclear neutrophils when in contact with the endothelium. In the present study, E-selectin is the least upregulated and exhibited the lowest percentage of immunoreactive cells relative to both VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. This suggests that oscillatory flow primarily increases the adhesivity of the endothelial cells.
It has been demonstrated23 that protracted exposure of HUVEC monolayers to a laminar shear stress of 10 dynes/cm2 did not significantly increase VCAM-1 expression, whereas ICAM-1 levels were selectively enhanced. The present study shows that VCAM-1 (as well as ICAM-1) is markedly upregulated by oscillatory shear stress. Whether there are common, but undefined, elements in the gene promoters responding to this stimulus or whether oscillatory shear stress stimulates more proximal common signaling pathways remains to be determined.
From the present study, it is clear that oscillatory flow
represents a stimulus different from that of steady flow, with
respect to adhesion molecule expression. It has previously been
shown19 that prior treatment of
endothelial monolayers with the antioxidant pyrrolidine
dithiocarbamate can suppress the level of cytokine-induced
VCAM-1 relative to untreated controls. These findings parallel our
concurrent studies9 10 in which chronic laminar
shear stress is also able to suppress inducible VCAM-1 expression by
80% compared with static IL-1ß–stimulated controls.
This leads to the conclusion that prolonged laminar shear stress may
act as an antioxidant stimulus on the endothelial
monolayer. Conversely, prolonged oscillatory shear stress does not
suppress the subsequent induction of VCAM-1 by IL-1ß on HUVEC
monolayers (Table 1). This finding indicates that the action of
oscillatory flow seems not to hypersensitize the cells to the action of
IL-1ß but to upregulate the inducible levels of the adhesion
molecules studied. Furthermore, the data derived from the use of NAC
suggest that oscillatory shear stress may upregulate VCAM-1 (Table 1)
and, to a lesser extent, ICAM-1 (Table 2) via a redox-sensitive
mechanism. The finding that pulsatile shear stress of 5±5
dynes/cm2 does not increase VCAM-1 mRNA for all
time periods suggests that the flow-reversal component of the
oscillatory shear regimen is an important factor in the upregulation.
These data indicate that HUVECs are capable of discriminating between
various flow types. The differential responses to the flow environment
are also reflected in morphological responses. In contrast to
endothelial cell monolayers exposed to high laminar
steady shear, which assume an elongated
morphology,5 and, in vivo, possess overlapping
borders,24 oscillatory shear–exposed HUVEC
monolayers tend to maintain their polygonal morphology, as displayed by
statically cultured monolayers. This lack of effect of oscillatory
shear to cause elongation and alignment has also been found for
confluent bovine aortic endothelial
cells.12 It has been
suggested1 2 that in the human carotid sinus at
areas distant to the flow divider, increased ingress of plasma
constituents across the endothelium occurs as a result
of the destabilizing influence of oscillatory shear stress on the
intercellular junctions of the endothelial cells at
these regions.
We have attempted to mimic, in vitro, the effect of the
hemodynamic forces thought to be exerted on the
endothelium at the human carotid sinus as far as
adhesion molecule expression is concerned. In future studies, it will
be of interest to determine whether alterations in frequency and
amplitude of the oscillations produce similar, enhanced, or
diminished effects from those demonstrated here. As shown in Figs 5 and 6, the pattern of adhesion molecule induction observed under
oscillatory flow is similar to that seen after cytokine
stimulation, although the relative magnitudes differ and the kinetics
of the former are slower than those of the latter. IL-1ß–stimulated
HUVEC monolayers may be typically induced to express maximal levels to
VCAM-1 within 8 hours of the commencement of stimulation. ICAM-1 levels
do not peak up to 24 hours of induction.
These data provide the initial evidence that oscillatory shear stress in vitro provides a proinflammatory stimulus to human endothelial cells, leading to enhanced expression of VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin. This upregulation correlates with an increased level of monocyte adherence relative to the statically maintained monolayers. It is likely that the observed augmentation proceeds through a mechanism involving an oxidative pathway(s) and that the flow-reversal component of the oscillatory flow stimulus is a critical factor. These observations are in contradistinction to the inhibitory effect on endothelial cells of steady laminar shear stress on cytokine-induced VCAM-1 expression,9 10 which may correlate with the apparent protective effects of steady shear stress to inhibit atherosclerosis development in vivo.3 These results with oscillatory shear may explain, at least in part, the striking propensity to develop atherosclerotic lesions opposite arterial flow dividers, ie, areas that are thought to exhibit oscillatory flow.1 2 Further defining the molecular mechanisms involved in the stimulation of adhesion molecule expression by oscillatory shear stress may enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by National Science Foundation grant BES-9412010 and National Institutes of Health grant P 01 HL-48667, which are gratefully acknowledged. Dr Medford is an Established Investigator of the American Heart Association. We would like to thank Drs Timothy Wick and Cheng Zhu for critical reading of the manuscript, Meg Grantham for excellent technical support, and Robert Karaffa for expert flow cytometry advice.
Received September 19, 1997; accepted November 17, 1997.
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P. Silacci, A. Desgeorges, L. Mazzolai, C. Chambaz, and D. Hayoz Flow Pulsatility Is a Critical Determinant of Oxidative Stress in Endothelial Cells Hypertension, November 1, 2001; 38(5): 1162 - 1166. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. B. Fisher, S. Chien, A. I. Barakat, and R. M. Nerem Endothelial cellular response to altered shear stress Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, September 1, 2001; 281(3): L529 - L533. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Tedgui and Z. Mallat Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms in the Vascular Wall Circ. Res., May 11, 2001; 88(9): 877 - 887. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. A. McPherson, K. G. Barringhaus, G. G. Bishop, J. M. Sanders, J. M. Rieger, S. E. Hesselbacher, L. W. Gimple, E. R. Powers, T. Macdonald, G. Sullivan, et al. Adenosine A2A Receptor Stimulation Reduces Inflammation and Neointimal Growth in a Murine Carotid Ligation Model Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, May 1, 2001; 21(5): 791 - 796. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H M Snow, F Markos, D O'Regan, and K Pollock Characteristics of arterial wall shear stress which cause endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in the anaesthetized dog J. Physiol., March 15, 2001; 531(3): 843 - 848. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. H. von der Thusen, T. J.C. van Berkel, and E. A.L. Biessen Induction of Rapid Atherogenesis by Perivascular Carotid Collar Placement in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient and Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Deficient Mice Circulation, February 27, 2001; 103(8): 1164 - 1170. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. B. Goldstein, R. Adams, K. Becker, C. D. Furberg, P. B. Gorelick, G. Hademenos, M. Hill, G. Howard, V. J. Howard, B. Jacobs, et al. Primary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke : A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association Circulation, January 2, 2001; 103(1): 163 - 182. [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Suvatne, A. I. Barakat, and M. E. O'Donnell Flow-induced expression of endothelial Na-K-Cl cotransport: dependence on K+ and Cl{-} channels Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, January 1, 2001; 280(1): C216 - C227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 L. B. Goldstein, R. Adams, K. Becker, C. D. Furberg, P. B. Gorelick, G. Hademenos, M. Hill, G. Howard, V. J. Howard, B. Jacobs, et al. Primary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke : A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association Stroke, January 1, 2001; 32(1): 280 - 299. [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Sander, C. Kukla, J. Klingelhofer, K. Winbeck, and B. Conrad Relationship Between Circadian Blood Pressure Patterns and Progression of Early Carotid Atherosclerosis : A 3-Year Follow-Up Study Circulation, September 26, 2000; 102(13): 1536 - 1541. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. M. Shaaban and A. J. Duerinckx Wall Shear Stress and Early Atherosclerosis: A Review Am. J. Roentgenol., June 1, 2000; 174(6): 1657 - 1665. [Full Text]
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 A. M. Malek, S. L. Alper, and S. Izumo Hemodynamic Shear Stress and Its Role in Atherosclerosis JAMA, December 1, 1999; 282(21): 2035 - 2042. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Nagel, N. Resnick, C. F. Dewey Jr, and M. A. Gimbrone Jr Vascular Endothelial Cells Respond to Spatial Gradients in Fluid Shear Stress by Enhanced Activation of Transcription Factors Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, August 1, 1999; 19(8): 1825 - 1834. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Fassbender, T. Bertsch, O. Mielke, F. Muhlhauser, and M. Hennerici Adhesion Molecules in Cerebrovascular Diseases : Evidence for an Inflammatory Endothelial Activation in Cerebral Large- and Small-Vessel Disease Stroke, August 1, 1999; 30(8): 1647 - 1650. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. A. Gimbrone Jr. Vascular Endothelium, Hemodynamic Forces, and Atherogenesis Am. J. Pathol., July 1, 1999; 155(1): 1 - 5. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 I. Buschmann and W. Schaper Arteriogenesis Versus Angiogenesis: Two Mechanisms of Vessel Growth Physiology, June 1, 1999; 14(3): 121 - 125. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Sasayama, A. Matsumori, and Y. Kihara New insights into the pathophysiological role for cytokines in heart failure Cardiovasc Res, June 1, 1999; 42(3): 557 - 564. [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Schaper and I. Buschmann Collateral Circulation and Diabetes Circulation, May 4, 1999; 99(17): 2224 - 2226. [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. W. De Keulenaer, D. C. Chappell, N. Ishizaka, R. M. Nerem, R. W. Alexander, and K. K. Griendling Oscillatory and Steady Laminar Shear Stress Differentially Affect Human Endothelial Redox State : Role of a Superoxide-Producing NADH Oxidase Circ. Res., June 1, 1998; 82(10): 1094 - 1101. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. R. Brooks, P. I. Lelkes, and G. M. Rubanyi Gene expression profiling of human aortic endothelial cells exposed to disturbed flow and steady laminar flow Physiol Genomics, April 10, 2002; 9(1): 27 - 41. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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