© 1997 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
The Early and Late Phases of Ischemic Preconditioning
A Comparative Analysis of Their Effects on Infarct Size, Myocardial Stunning, and Arrhythmias in Conscious Pigs Undergoing a 40-Minute Coronary Occlusion
From the Experimental Research Laboratory (Y.Q., X.-L.T., S.-W.P., J.-Z.S., R.B.), Section of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Tex, and the Experimental Research Laboratory (Y.Q., X.-L.T., A.K., R.B.), Division of Cardiology, University of Louisville (Ky).
Correspondence to Roberto Bolli, MD, Division of Cardiology, University of Louisville, Ambulatory Care Building, Louisville, KY 40292. E-mail r0boll01{at}ulkyvm.louisville.edu
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Abstract |
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Abstract The effectiveness of the late phase of ischemic preconditioning (PC) in protecting against myocardial infarction and the concomitant contractile dysfunction after sustained ischemia remains unclear. The early and late phases of PC have not been compared using the same protocol in the same experimental model; furthermore, the late phase of PC has not been assessed in the conscious state in a large animal preparation. The goal of this study was to directly compare the effects of early and late PC on myocardial infarct size and postischemic dysfunction in chronically instrumented, conscious pigs. Four groups of pigs were subjected to a 40-minute coronary occlusion followed by 3 days of reperfusion. Group 1 (n=7) served as control. Group 2 (n=6) was subjected to ten 2-minute occlusion/2-minute reperfusion cycles 25 minutes before the 40-minute occlusion (early PC). Groups 3 (n=7) and 4 (n=4) were subjected to 10 and 25 cycles, respectively, of 2-minute occlusion/2-minute reperfusion 24 hours before the 40-minute occlusion (late PC). Infarct size averaged 45.1±5.9% of the region at risk in control pigs, was reduced by 79% (to 9.4±3.2%) in group 2, but did not differ in groups 3 (33.3±4.8%) and 4 (38.8±8.2%) versus group 1. Power analysis demonstrated that there was an 80% probability of detecting a 40% decrease in infarct size in groups 3 and 4 versus group 1. The recovery of systolic wall thickening (measured with ultrasonic crystals) after the 40-minute occlusion was poor in groups 1, 3, and 4 but markedly enhanced in group 2 throughout the 3 days of reperfusion; this beneficial effect could have been due to limitation of infarct size, alleviation of stunning, or both. Thus, a series of ten 2-minute coronary occlusions had a profound (
80%) early infarct–limiting effect, which was associated with a
marked functional benefit. This protection, however, disappeared 24
hours later and could not be reinstituted by increasing the number of
PC coronary occlusions to 25. The incidence and duration of
ventricular tachycardia after reperfusion was
not changed by either early or late PC; no conclusions could be drawn
regarding ventricular fibrillation or
ischemia-induced ventricular
tachycardia, since these arrhythmias did not occur
in control animals. Taken together, the present results demonstrate
striking differences between the early and late effects of PC: In
conscious swine subjected to a sustained coronary occlusion, a
PC protocol that induces powerful protection during the early phase of
PC fails to induce any protection during the late phase, indicating
either that a late protective effect of PC does not exist or that, if
it exists, it must be weaker than the early protective effect.
Key Words: preconditioning • swine • ischemia • reperfusion
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Ischemic PC is the phenomenon whereby brief ischemic episodes render the heart more resistant to subsequent ischemic insults.1 2 3 4 5 6 It has recently become apparent that ischemic PC consists of two phases: an early phase, which occurs within minutes and disappears within 2 to 4 hours from the PC ischemia,7 8 9 and a late phase, which becomes manifest 24 hours later.10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 While the early phase of PC has been clearly shown to protect against infarction and, in some models, against arrhythmias,1 7 8 9 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 the effects of the late phase of PC on infarct size and arrhythmias after a sustained coronary occlusion are controversial. Kuzuya et al,11 Marber et al,10 and Baxter and colleagues13 15 have shown that ischemic PC reduces infarct size 24 hours later in open-chest canine11 and rabbit10 13 15 models. Yang et al14 have recently reported a reduction in infarct size 24 hours after ischemic PC in conscious rabbits. In contrast, using a protocol similar to that used in the above-mentioned studies, Tanaka et al27 were unable to demonstrate a protective effect of late PC against infarction in open-chest rabbits.10 13 15 Similarly, Jagasia et al28 failed to observe any infarct-limiting effect of late PC in open-chest rats. With regard to the effect of PC on myocardial stunning after a sustained ischemic insult resulting in subendocardial infarction, studies in open-chest animal models23 29 have reported that early PC does not protect; no data are available regarding late PC. Evaluation of this form of myocardial stunning is particularly difficult because the reperfused region contains a complex admixture of necrotic subendocardium and stunned subendocardium and because the relative proportions of these two components in different parts of the reperfused region can be highly variable.30 As to the effects of ischemic PC on arrhythmias, only a few studies dealing with the late phase of protection have been published. Shiki and Hearse19 reported that open-chest rats were protected against reperfusion-induced VT and VF within 60 minutes after ischemic PC, but this effect disappeared 24 hours later. Yang et al,14 however, showed that in conscious rabbits ischemic PC reduced ischemia-induced VF 24 hours later.
An assessment of the effects of late PC on infarct size and arrhythmias is complicated by the fact that all published studies,10 11 13 15 27 28 except the report by Yang et al,14 have been performed in open-chest animals that were recovering from a recent thoracotomy. It is possible that either the postoperative state or the abnormal conditions associated with the open-chest state (such as anesthesia, trauma, elevated catecholamine levels, fluctuations in body temperature, etc) may interfere with the phenomenon of late PC or with the end points examined (infarct size, postischemic contractile performance, and incidence and severity of arrhythmias).31 32 For example, both the severity of myocardial stunning and the magnitude of the attendant free radical generation are greatly exaggerated in open-chest compared with conscious dogs.33 34 Ischemia- and reperfusion-induced arrhythmias differ in open-chest compared with conscious animals.25 35 For a given level of collateral flow and region at risk, infarct size has been found to be greater in anesthetized versus conscious dogs,36 although this is not the case in rabbits.3 5 The size of a myocardial infarction is affected to a major extent by myocardial temperature,37 38 which is unstable in open-chest models.34 Finally, the duration of early PC differs in conscious versus open-chest rabbits,9 25 and several investigators have found that PC is affected by the specific type of anesthesia used. All of these problems would be obviated by evaluating the effects of late PC in conscious animals.
Accordingly, we sought to analyze late PC in a conscious
porcine model. We have recently found in conscious pigs that a sequence
of ten 2-minute coronary occlusion/2-minute reperfusion cycles
attenuates myocardial stunning after reversible ischemia 24
hours later12 16 17 ; specifically, when the same sequence
of ten 2-minute occlusions is repeated on 2 consecutive days, the
duration and degree of postischemic dysfunction are
significantly less on the second day compared with the first
day,12 16 17 indicating the development of a late PC
effect against stunning. This protective effect is powerful, resulting
in an 50% decrease in the severity of myocardial stunning and is
consistent, being observed in every animal
studied.12 16 17
In view of the conflicting reports regarding the effects of late PC on infarct size and arrhythmias, in view of the lack of any data on the effect of late PC on the recovery of contractile function after a subendocardial infarction, and in view of the fact that almost all of the studies of late PC have been performed in open-chest preparations, we investigated in our conscious pig model whether late PC protects against a partly irreversible ischemic insult resulting in subendocardial infarction. Specifically, in the present study, we sought to determine whether a sequence of ten 2-minute coronary occlusion/2-minute reperfusion cycles (which is highly effective in inducing late PC against the myocardial stunning caused by another sequence of 2-minute coronary occlusions12 16 17 ) also confers protection against the infarction, contractile dysfunction, and arrhythmias associated with a 40-minute coronary occlusion performed 24 hours later. We compared the effects observed 24 hours after the sequence of coronary occlusions (late PC) with those observed 25 minutes after the sequence (early PC) in order to gain insight into the relative potency of early and late PC. Having found that a sequence of ten 2-minute ischemic episodes fails to reduce infarct size 24 hours later, we then sought to determine whether increasing the number of PC cycles from 10 to 25 would induce a protective effect. Because of the difficulties inherent in distinguishing reversible from irreversible contractile abnormalities in the setting of a subendocardial infarction (due to the admixture of viable and necrotic tissue),30 the primary purpose of measuring systolic wall thickening in the present study was to determine, in general terms, whether PC enhances the recovery of contractile function in the reperfused region rather than to specifically dissect the functional effects of PC resulting from attenuation of stunning from those resulting from reduction in infarct size.
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Materials and Methods |
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In order to allow comparisons between the present results and our prior data, the same conscious pig model previously used to study late PC against myocardial stunning after reversible ischemia12 16 17 39 was used in the present study. The preparation and techniques have been detailed previously.12 16 17 39 The study was performed in accordance with the guidelines of the Committee on Animals of Baylor College of Medicine and with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Department of Health and Human Services, Publication No. [NIH] 86-23).
Experimental Preparation
Domestic pigs of either sex (weight on the day of the study,
28.2±3.3 kg) were premedicated with ketamine hydrochloride (20
mg/kg IM) and atropine sulfate (0.04 mg/kg IM). Sixty minutes later,
anesthesia was induced with methohexital sodium (4 to 8
mg/kg IV), after which the animals were intubated.
Anesthesia was maintained with 0.5% to 1.0%
methoxyflurane. A left thoracotomy was performed in the 5th intercostal
space under sterile conditions. Tygon catheters were placed in the left
atrium and right ventricle, and an additional catheter was introduced
into the femoral artery and advanced to the thoracic aorta. A hydraulic
occluder and a Doppler flow velocity probe were implanted around
the mid LAD. Two insulated copper wires were sutured to the right
ventricle to record the electrocardiogram. To
measure LV wall thickening, 10-MHz pulsed Doppler ultrasonic
crystals33 were sutured to the epicardial surface, two in
the center of the region to be rendered ischemic and another in
an area remote from it (posterior LV wall); each probe was sutured with
four 5-0 prolene stitches penetrating 0.5 to 1.0 mm into the
myocardium, thus producing minimal trauma. All wires and
catheters were tunneled under the skin and exteriorized through small
incisions on the back. The chest was closed in layers, and a small tube
was left in the thorax to evacuate air and fluids after surgery.
Antibiotics were administered intravenously before surgery
and daily thereafter (cefazolin, 30 mg/kg BID; gentamicin, 0.7 mg/kg
BID). Arterial blood gases, hematocrit, rectal temperature,
and heart rate were measured daily after instrumentation to ensure that
the animals had fully recovered from the surgical procedure. The
catheters were flushed daily until the end of the protocol. All pigs
were allowed to recover for a minimum of 10 days after surgery and were
trained for at least 6 days to lie quietly in a specially designed
cage. The cage was constructed of wood and could be adjusted (length,
90 to 115 cm; width, 55 to 73 cm) to match the size of the pig.
Experimental Protocol
Throughout the experiment, pigs were studied as they lay quietly
in a cage in a quiet, dimly lit room. Aortic pressure was measured with
Statham P23Db pressure transducers. All measured variables (aortic
pressure, LAD blood flow velocity, LV wall thickening, and the
electrocardiogram) were recorded
simultaneously on an eight-channel direct-writing
oscillograph (Gould Brush System 200).
The experimental protocol is illustrated in Fig 1
. Pigs
were assigned to a control group or to one of three preconditioned
groups. In the control group (group 1, n=7), pigs were subjected to a
40-minute LAD occlusion followed by 3 days of reperfusion. To assess
the protective effects of the early phase of PC, pigs in group 2
underwent a sequence of ten 2-minute LAD occlusions, each separated by
2 minutes of reperfusion, followed 25 minutes later by a 40-minute LAD
occlusion and 3 days of reperfusion. This protocol was selected as a
result of pilot studies in which 3 pigs underwent a sequence of ten
2-minute LAD occlusions, followed 15 minutes later by a 40-minute LAD
occlusion. Because all 3 pigs developed VF upon reperfusion, in group 2
we lengthened the interval between the PC ischemia and the
40-minute coronary occlusion to 25 minutes. To assess the
protective effects of the late phase of PC, pigs in group 3 (n=7)
underwent a sequence of ten 2-minute LAD occlusions, each separated by
2 minutes of reperfusion, followed 24 hours later by a 40-minute LAD
occlusion and 3 days of reperfusion. To determine whether increasing
the number of PC cycles brings about a protective effect during the
late phase of PC, pigs in group 4 (n=4) were subjected to 25 (instead
of 10) cycles of 2-minute LAD occlusion/2-minute reperfusion and, 24
hours later, a 40-minute LAD occlusion followed by 3 days of
reperfusion.
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In all groups, pigs were sedated with diazepam on 2 consecutive days, ie, on the day of the 40-minute LAD occlusion and on the antecedent day. On each day, diazepam was given in doses sufficient to maintain sedation for 4 to 5 hours12 16 17 39 (the initial dose was 1.5 to 2.5 mg/kg IV over 60 minutes; subsequent additional doses were given as needed). Thus, the dosage of diazepam was identical in all groups. Hemodynamic variables were recorded at the following time points: before administration of diazepam (baseline); 5 minutes before the 40-minute LAD occlusion (preocclusion); 20 and 40 minutes into the LAD occlusion; and 30 minutes and 1, 2, 3, 24, and 72 hours after reperfusion following the 40-minute LAD occlusion. The electrocardiogram was recorded continuously throughout the 40 minutes of LAD occlusion and the initial 15 minutes of reperfusion. LV wall thickening was recorded at the following time points: baseline (before diazepam); before the first 2-minute LAD occlusion or the 40-minute occlusion, depending on the protocol (preocclusion); 1 minute after each reperfusion during the sequence of 10 occlusions and reperfusions; at 20 minutes into the 40-minute LAD occlusion; and at 15 minutes and 1, 3, 24, and 72 hours after reperfusion following the 40-minute LAD occlusion. To measure regional myocardial blood flow, radioactive microspheres were injected at 30 minutes into the 40-minute LAD occlusion, as previously described.12 16 17 39 The following measurements of arrhythmic activity were obtained: PVCs, incidence and duration of VT (defined as four or more consecutive ventricular ectopic beats), total number of ectopic beats (number of PVCs plus beats of VT), and incidence of VF.
Measurement of Regional Myocardial Function
Regional myocardial function was assessed as systolic
wall thickening by using a pulsed Doppler probe, as previously
described.12 16 17 39 40 The beginning of systole was
determined from the peak of the QRS complex on the right
ventricular electrogram, and the end of systole was
determined from the onset of the rapid rise in LAD blood flow velocity
after systole.12 16 17 39 40 Percentage systolic
thickening fraction was calculated as the ratio of net systolic
thickening to end-diastolic wall thickness, multiplied by
100.40 In all animals, measurements from at least 10 beats
were averaged at baseline, and from at least 5 beats at all subsequent
time points. As indicated above, two thickening Doppler probes were
implanted in the potentially ischemic region. The measurements
used for this study are those derived from the probe that gave the
lowest values of wall thickening (ie, the most severe degree of
myocardial stunning) after reperfusion.
Measurement of Infarct Size and Regional Blood Flow
At the end of the study, the pigs were heparinized (5000 U IV),
anesthetized (sodium pentobarbital, 35 mg/kg IV), and killed
with an intravenous bolus of KCl. The hearts were excised,
and the LAD was cannulated at the site of the previous occlusion. To
delineate the occluded vascular bed, the aortic root was perfused for 2
minutes with a 0.5% solution of Monastral blue dye in 6% dextran 70
in normal saline at a pressure of 100
mm Hg,12 16 17 39 and the previously occluded LAD was
simultaneously perfused with colorless fluid (6% dextran
70 in normal saline) at the same pressure. As a result of this
procedure, the portion of the LV supplied by the previously occluded
coronary artery (ischemic bed) was identified by the
absence of blue dye.12 16 17 39 The heart was then cut
into 1.0-cm-thick slices in a plane parallel to the
atrioventricular groove, and all atrial,
valvular, and right ventricular tissues were
excised. To delineate infarcted from viable myocardium, the
slices were incubated in a 1% solution of
triphenyltetrazolium chloride (pH 7.4) at
37°C for 20 minutes. All slices were then weighed, photographed, and
fixed in 10% formaldehyde solution. Transparencies were projected
onto a paper sheet at a 10-fold magnification and traced to delineate
infarcted, ischemic/reperfused, and nonischemic
regions. The corresponding areas were measured by videoplanimetry, and
from these measurements, infarct size was calculated as a percentage of
the occluded bed.41 Five transmural specimens (1 to
2 g) were then obtained from both the ischemic and the
nonischemic regions (to avoid admixture of ischemic and
nonischemic tissue, ischemic specimens were obtained at
least 0.5 cm inside the boundaries of the occluded bed). Each specimen
was divided into endocardial and epicardial halves, weighed, and placed
in scintillation vials containing 10% neutral buffered formalin.
Regional myocardial blood flow was calculated by standard
methods.40
Statistical Analysis
Data are reported as mean±SEM. Hemodynamic
variables and wall thickening were evaluated by a two-way repeated
measures ANOVA (group and time) to determine whether there was a main
effect of group, a main effect of time, or a group-time interaction. If
the global tests showed a significant main effect or interaction, post
hoc contrasts between different time points in the same group or
between different groups at the same time point were performed with
paired or unpaired Student's t tests, as appropriate, using
the Bonferroni correction.42 Occluded bed size, infarct
size, and regional blood flow were analyzed with a one-way
ANOVA followed by unpaired Student's t tests with the
Bonferroni correction. Because they did not follow a normal
distribution, the total number of PVCs and ectopic beats and the
duration of VT were analyzed using nonparametric
methods (Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA). The distribution of PVCs in
each 4-minute interval from 0 to 40 minutes of LAD was compared among
groups with the Mann-Whitney U test. The relation between
infarct size and postischemic wall thickening was assessed by
linear regression analysis using the least-squares method; the
slopes of the repression lines were compared by ANCOVA. Since the data
in the control group (group 1) and in the two late PC groups (groups 3
and 4) were found to lie along the same regression line, a comparison
was performed between the regression line for the early preconditioned
group (group 2) and the regression line for groups 1, 3, and 4
combined. All statistical analyses were performed using the SAS
software system.43 Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was
performed using the procedure GLM (General Linear
Models).43
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Results |
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Exclusions
A total of 29 pigs were entered into the study. Three pigs (1 in group 1, 1 in group 2, and 1 in group 4) were excluded because of failure of the balloon occluder during either the multiple 2-minute LAD occlusions or the 40-minute occlusion. Two pigs in group 4 died of ischemia-induced VF during PC with 25 LAD occlusions. The remaining 24 pigs form the basis of the present study. Of these, 7 were assigned to a control group (group 1), 6 to the early PC group (group 2), and 7 and 4 to the late PC groups (groups 3 and 4, respectively).
Arterial Blood Gases, Hematocrit, Temperature, and
Diazepam Dose
On the day of the 40-minute LAD occlusion, arterial
pH, PO2, hematocrit, and rectal temperature
were within physiological limits in all groups
(Table 1). The doses of diazepam were similar among the
four groups on the day of the 40-minute LAD occlusion (2.96±0.21,
2.85±0.24, 2.65±0.19, and 2.95±0.30 mg/kg in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4,
respectively; P=NS) as well as on the day before the
40-minute LAD occlusion (2.86±0.22, 2.81±0.26, 2.65±0.39, and
2.75±0.31 mg/kg in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively;
P=NS).
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Hemodynamic Variables
The administration of diazepam did not produce significant
hemodynamic alterations, as indicated by the comparison
of baseline (before diazepam) and preocclusion (after diazepam)
measurements (Table 2). All measured variables
(heart rate, systolic arterial pressure,
rate-pressure product, and LAD blood flow) remained stable within
each day. There were no significant differences in
hemodynamic variables among the four groups at any
time point (Table 2).
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Regional Myocardial Blood Flow
The measurements of regional myocardial blood flow are summarized
in Table 3. Thirty minutes into the 40-minute LAD
occlusion, blood flow to the ischemic region was virtually nil
in all groups, both in the subepicardial and in the subendocardial
layers of the LV wall. There was no statistically significant
difference among the four study groups with respect to epicardial,
endocardial, or mean transmural flow to the nonischemic
zone.
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Myocardial Infarct Size
Table 4 summarizes the weights of the LV,
region at risk, and infarct, as well as the risk region–to–LV and
infarct–to–risk region ratios. The individual values of infarct size,
expressed as a percentage of the region at risk, are illustrated in Fig 2. The size of the risk region was similar among the
four groups (Table 4). In the control group, the 40-minute LAD
occlusion resulted in infarct sizes that averaged 45.1±5.9% of the
region at risk (Fig 2). PC with ten 2-minute LAD occlusion/2-minute
reperfusion cycles followed by 25 minutes of reperfusion before the
prolonged (40-minute) LAD occlusion (group 2) reduced infarct size to
9.4±3.2% of the region at risk (P<.05 versus the control
group) (Fig 2), indicating a marked protective effect of the early
phase of PC against infarction. However, the same PC protocol had no
significant effect on infarct size 24 hours later (group 3): infarct
size averaged 33.3±4.8% of the region at risk, which was not
statistically different from the control group (Fig 2). Increasing the
number of PC occlusions from 10 to 25 (group 4) did not result in a
late PC effect against infarction (38.8±8.2% of the risk region,
P=NS versus the control group) (Fig 2).
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indicates individual values; 
, group
mean±SEM.
Power Analysis
A statistical analysis was performed to measure the
probability that a reduction of infarct size during the late phase of
PC could have been missed because of insufficient sample size (type II
error).42 Because the purpose of this investigation was to
evaluate the ability of late PC to reduce infarct size and because an
increase of tissue necrosis by PC has never been suggested, we measured
only the probability of demonstrating a decrease in infarct size
(one-tailed analysis). Fig 3 illustrates the
power of the study as a function of the hypothetical reduction of
infarct size by late PC (
=.05). In the group in which late PC was
induced with 10 LAD occlusions (group 3), there was an 80%
probability of demonstrating a 45% reduction in infarct size compared
with the control group (group 1), if such a reduction did indeed occur
(Fig 3, upper panel). The probability of detecting a 79% reduction of
infarct size (which corresponds to the reduction effected by early PC
in group 2 versus group 1) was almost 100%. Thus, if late PC were as
effective as early PC in limiting cell death, there would have been
virtually no chance that such an effect would have been missed in this
study.
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Since infarct size did not differ appreciably in the two groups that
underwent late PC (groups 3 and 4) (Table 4
, Fig 2), we repeated the
power analysis after pooling the data from all of the pigs in
groups 3 and 4, so as to measure the probability that a reduction of
infarct size by late PC (induced with either 10 or 25 LAD occlusions)
was missed. The results of this analysis show that there was an
80% probability of demonstrating a 40% reduction in infarct size (Fig 3, lower panel). In previous studies showing a protective effect of
early PC1 7 8 9 18 22 24 or late PC10 11 13
against infarction, the average reduction of infarct size was 
40%.
Therefore, it is unlikely that a biologically important effect of late
PC, if present, remained undetected in this study.
Regional Myocardial Function
Because of Doppler probe malfunction, measurements of wall
thickening could be obtained only in 5 of the 7 pigs in group 1, 5 of
the 6 pigs in group 2, and 6 of the 7 pigs in group 3. Wall thickening
measurements were obtained in all 4 pigs in group 4. In the
nonischemic region, the systolic thickening fraction
did not differ significantly among the control group (group 1) and the
preconditioned groups (groups 2, 3, and 4) before and during the 40
minutes of LAD occlusion and during the 3 days of reperfusion (Table 2).
In the LAD-dependent region, baseline systolic thickening
fraction was similar in all groups (29.6±2.3%, 25.2±3.1%,
21.3±1.6%, and 25.0±5.0% in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively;
P=NS). The preocclusion measurements of thickening fraction
were similar to the baseline measurements in groups 1, 3, and 4 but
were markedly decreased in group 2, as a result of the PC protocol (Fig 4). During the 40-minute LAD occlusion, all groups
exhibited similar degrees of dyskinesis (Fig 4). After reperfusion,
control pigs (group 1) exhibited essentially no recovery of wall
thickening, even at 3 days after occlusion release (Fig 4), indicating
severe stunning of the viable myocardium within the risk
region. In contrast, pigs in the early PC group (group 2) showed a
marked enhancement in the recovery of wall thickening, which was
evident as early as 15 minutes after reperfusion and persisted up to 3
days (Fig 4). In the late PC groups (groups 3 and 4), the recovery of
wall thickening was indistinguishable from that in the control group
(Fig 4), suggesting that late PC had no effect on myocardial
stunning.
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The enhanced recovery of contractile function in group 2 could have
been caused by infarct size limitation or by a protective effect of
early PC against myocardial stunning. In an attempt to distinguish
between these two possibilities, the measurements of thickening
fraction at 1, 3, 24, and 72 hours of reperfusion were plotted as a
function of infarct size (Fig 5). ANCOVA demonstrated
that at 1, 3, 24, and 72 hours after reperfusion, the slope of the
regression line for the early PC group (group 2) was significantly
different from that of the regression line for groups 1, 3, and 4
combined (P<.01 at all time points). This would suggest
that for similar infarct sizes, the severity of stunning was reduced in
group 2, ie, that early PC alleviated the severity of myocardial
stunning independent of the reduction of infarct size. The results of
this analysis, however, cannot be considered conclusive because
the infarct sizes in group 2 were clustered in the low infarct/risk
region range (as a result of the infarct-sparing effect of early PC);
only 1 pig in group 2 had an infarct size comparable to that in groups
1, 3, and 4. Since linearity in each experimental group over the total
range of infarct sizes could not be demonstrated, a parabolic
relationship between infarct size and wall thickening cannot be
excluded. Thus, it remains possible that the functional improvement
observed in group 2 was due to the smaller infarct sizes.
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Fig 5 also illustrates the fact that in the late PC groups (groups 3
and 4), all points lie around the regression line of the control group
(group 1), which would support the concept that late PC did not have
any effect on myocardial stunning.
Ischemia-Induced Arrhythmias
The total number of PVCs, the total number of ectopic beats, and
the incidence of VT and VF during the 40-minute LAD occlusion are shown
in Table 5. The number of PVCs in each 4-minute interval
from 0 to 40 minutes of LAD occlusion is illustrated in Figs 6 and 7. No VT or VF was observed in any
group, which may reflect the relatively small region at risk. In the
control group, the occurrence of PVCs showed a biphasic profile, with a
first peak developing at 13 to 16 minutes after LAD occlusion, followed
by a period of remission and then by a second, smaller peak at 37 to 40
minutes after LAD occlusion (Fig 6). This profile of occurrence of PVCs
was modified in the early phase of ischemic PC. As shown in Fig 6, a sequence of ten 2-minute LAD occlusions (ending 25 minutes before
the 40-minute occlusion [group 2]) delayed the occurrence of PVCs
during the 40-minute occlusion (an effect that was statistically
significant [P<.05, Mann-Whitney U test]),
although it did not significantly decrease the total number of PVCs
(Table 5). (Similar results were obtained in pilot studies in 3 pigs
subjected to ten 2-minute LAD occlusions and then to a 40-minute
occlusion after a 15-minute interval [data not shown].) On the other
hand, late PC with either 10 or 25 LAD occlusions performed 24 hours
earlier produced no consistent changes in the distribution of
PVCs during the 40-minute occlusion (Fig 7) and had no significant
effect on the total number of PVCs (Table 5).
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Reperfusion-Induced Arrhythmias
The total number of PVCs and ectopic beats, the incidence and
duration of VT, and the incidence of VF during the first 15 minutes of
reperfusion following the 40-minute LAD occlusion are summarized in
Table 5. No pig developed VF in the control group. As mentioned in
"Materials and Methods," in the pilot studies in which the
interval between the PC ischemia and the 40-minute LAD
occlusion was 15 minutes, 3 of 3 pigs developed VF. When the interval
between the PC ischemia and the 40-minute LAD occlusion was
prolonged to 25 minutes (group 2), the incidence of VF fell to 14% (1
of 6 pigs). Although group 2 exhibited fewer PVCs than did group 1
(control group), there were no significant differences between group 2
and group 1 with respect to the total number of ectopic beats or the
incidence or duration of VT. PC performed 24 hours earlier with 10
cycles of LAD occlusion/reperfusion (group 3) did not have any
significant effect on reperfusion-induced arrhythmias. PC
performed 24 hours earlier with 25 LAD occlusion/reperfusion cycles
(group 4) resulted in a significant increase in the duration of
reperfusion-induced VT and in the total number of ectopic beats
compared with the control group values (Table 5).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The goal of the present study was to perform a comprehensive comparison of the effects of early and late PC on infarct size and postischemic dysfunction under conditions that are as physiological as possible. The salient findings can be summarized as follows: (1) In conscious pigs, a sequence of ten 2-minute coronary occlusions markedly reduces (by
80%) the
size of the infarction resulting from a 40-minute occlusion produced 25
minutes later, indicating a powerful early PC effect against cell
death. (2) This protective effect is associated with a marked and
sustained enhancement of the recovery of contractile function. (3)
Despite these powerful early protective effects, the same PC protocol
(ten 2-minute occlusions) fails to reduce the size of the infarction
and the severity of the postischemic dysfunction resulting
from a 40-minute occlusion produced 24 hours later. (4) Increasing the
number of PC coronary occlusions from 10 to 25 does not bring
about a protective effect 24 hours later. (5) Although no conclusions
can be drawn regarding the incidence of VF, PC with 10 or 25 occlusions
fails to decrease the number of PVCs during ischemia or
reperfusion and the incidence and duration of VT during reperfusion 24
hours later. Previous studies10 11 13 14 15 27 have examined the effects of late PC on infarct size in rabbits and dogs, mostly in open-chest preparations.10 11 13 15 27 To our knowledge, this is the first study (1) to examine early PC against infarction and arrhythmias in conscious pigs, (2) to assess late PC against infarction and arrhythmias in pigs, (3) to assess PC (early or late) against postischemic dysfunction in the setting of a subendocardial infarction in a conscious animal model, and (4) to directly compare the effects of the early and late phases of PC in the same animal model using the same experimental protocol. Taken together, the present results demonstrate a dichotomy between the early and late effects of PC. We found that a PC protocol that was highly effective in providing protection against cell death during the early phase of PC failed to induce any protection during the late phase of PC, indicating that in conscious swine late PC against infarction either does not exist or, if it exists, is weaker than early PC. Similarly, the ten 2-minute occlusion protocol was highly effective in enhancing recovery of contractile function after a partly reversible ischemic insult during the early phase of PC but failed to do so during the late phase of PC. The fact that the same protocol induces early but not late protection against infarction and contractile dysfunction after a 40-minute coronary occlusion suggests important qualitative or quantitative differences between the mechanism of early and late PC.
Effect of the Early Phase of PC on Infarction
Numerous previous investigations have established the early
infarct–sparing effects of ischemic PC in open-chest
models.2 3 4 5 However, only a few studies9 25
have documented the ability of early PC to reduce infarct size in a
conscious animal model (rabbits). All previous studies in larger
species (dogs and pigs) have used anesthetized preparations
(eg, References 1, 7, 22, and 241 7 22 24 ; reviewed in Reference 33 ). Thus, to
date, no published report has demonstrated the ability of
ischemic PC to reduce infarct size during the early phase of
protection in a large mammalian heart in the conscious state. Because
there are differences between open-chest and conscious preparations
with respect to stunning,34
arrhythmias,25 35 infarction,36 and
PC9 25 (possibly as a result of the confounding effects of
anesthesia, surgical trauma, abnormal
hemodynamics, fluctuations in body
temperature,34 37 38 exaggerated free radical
production,33 etc, associated with the open-chest
state) and because these factors could affect PC, it is important to
verify whether ischemic PC is equally protective in awake
animals. The present study demonstrates that ischemic PC is
remarkably effective in limiting cell death during the early phase of
protection in conscious pigs: infarct size was reduced from an average
of 45.1±5.9% of the risk region to 9.4±3.2% (a 79% reduction). The
present study also demonstrates that ischemic episodes need
not last 3 to 5 minutes in order to induce PC; ischemic
episodes <3 minutes can be highly effective, if they recur in
clusters.
In contrast to conscious dogs, in which brief coronary
occlusions can be performed without sedation,33 34 35 40 in
our experience conscious pigs require sedation with diazepam because of
restlessness, which continues to occur even after several days of
adaptive training to the laboratory
environment.12 16 17 39 However, in accordance with
previous studies,12 16 17 39 in this investigation the
administration of diazepam had no effect on hemodynamic
variables (Table 2) or wall thickening (Fig 4). The animals were
still conscious and responsive to stimuli but remained calm throughout
the protocol; as a result, hemodynamics were stable
during ischemia and early reperfusion (Table 2).
Effect of the Late Phase of PC on Infarction
In contrast to the early phase of PC, the efficacy of the late
phase of PC in reducing infarct size is controversial. Kuzuya et
al11 have demonstrated in open-chest dogs that a sequence
of four 5-minute coronary occlusions reduces the size of the
infarction produced by a 90-minute coronary occlusion applied
24 hours later. Using open-chest rabbits, Marber et al10
have shown that a sequence of four 5-minute coronary occlusions
significantly reduces the size of the infarction resulting from a
30-minute coronary occlusion applied 24 hours after the PC
ischemia. Similar results have been subsequently reported by
Baxter and colleagues13 15 in a similar model. Yang et
al14 have recently reported that PC with four cycles of
5-minute coronary occlusion/10-minute reperfusion 24 hours
before the 30-minute ischemia reduces infarct size in conscious
rabbits. On the other hand, using an open-chest rabbit preparation and
an experimental protocol similar to that of Marber et al10
and Baxter and colleagues,13 15 Tanaka et
al27 failed to show a significant infarct-limiting effect
either 24 or 48 hours after the PC ischemia. Furthermore,
Jagasia et al28 did not observe any reduction in infarct
size in open-chest rats subjected to a 45-minute coronary
occlusion 24 hours after PC with either three 3-minute occlusions or
one 15-minute occlusion. The reason for these conflicting results is
unknown.
The present findings indicate that in spite of a profound early protection against infarction, PC with 10 or 25 cycles of 2-minute LAD occlusion/2-minute reperfusion did not have a significant infarct-limiting effect 24 hours later in conscious pigs. We cannot exclude the possibility that a late protective effect could have been observed using different PC protocols. However, our study demonstrates that a PC protocol that is highly effective in reducing infarct size during the early phase of PC fails to reduce infarct size during the late phase of PC. This indicates that in conscious pigs, a late protective effect of ischemic PC against cell death either does not exist or that, if it exists, it must be weaker than the early protective effect.
The apparent discrepancy between our results and those of previous
authors10 11 13 14 15 may be explained by differences in
species, experimental preparations, and/or protocols. The failure of
the present study to detect a late phase of protection against
infarction cannot be ascribed to variations in the major determinants
of infarct size. The size of the infarct was normalized to the size of
the risk region, which was relatively consistent among pigs.
Collateral flow during the 40-minute LAD occlusion was virtually nil in
all animals. Body temperature (another major determinant of infarct
size37 38 ) was virtually indistinguishable among the
various groups (Table 1). Finally, hemodynamic
variables were similar in all groups (Table 2). It is unlikely that
the reason for the negative results was an insufficient PC
ischemic stimulus. In group 4, a total of 50 minutes of
ischemia (twenty-five 2-minute LAD occlusions) was applied as
the PC stimulus, which is far in excess of the total ischemic
burden (20 minutes) previously found to induce late PC against
infarction in rabbits10 13 14 15 and dogs.11
Furthermore, in group 2, a PC protocol of ten 2-minute LAD occlusions
(total ischemic burden of 20 minutes) was sufficient to trigger
a "classic" early protective response, with a 79% decrease in
infarct size—an effect comparable to that observed in most studies of
early PC against infarction.1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 18 22 23 24 29 Thus,
judging from the ability to limit necrosis, our PC protocol was as
powerful as that used in previous
investigations.1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 18 22 23 24 29
Our inability to detect a late phase of protection against infarction cannot be attributed to the use of an excessively severe ischemic insult as the test for protection. The severity of an ischemic insult is determined not only by the duration of the coronary occlusion but also by the level of collateral perfusion, the myocardial oxygen demands, the myocardial temperature, and probably other factors. The net result of the aggregate influences of all of these factors is the amount of tissue necrosis, which can therefore be considered as an indicator of the overall severity of the ischemic insult. Although the duration of coronary occlusion that we used (40 minutes) is longer than that (30 minutes) used in prior studies of late PC in rabbits,10 13 14 15 the amount of necrosis resulting from the 40-minute occlusion in our control animals is comparable to that noted in the control animals in previous studies in which late PC was observed (45.1±5.9% of the risk region in our study versus 56.9±6.5% in the study by Marber et al,10 53.6±5.7% in the study by Baxter et al,13 and 35.7±2.3% in the study by Yang et al14 ). Furthermore, the duration of the sustained occlusion in our study was much shorter than that (90 minutes) used by Kuzuya et al.11 The infarct size in our control group is also comparable to that reported in the control groups of most previous studies of early PC against infarction.1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 18 22 23 24 29 It is possible that a late PC effect could be detected using shorter coronary occlusions resulting in smaller infarcts. However, if the protection afforded by late PC were limited only to occlusions shorter than 40 minutes and to infarcts <45% of the risk region, such protection would clearly be less powerful than that afforded by early PC.
The results obtained in group 2 provide a "positive control," in the sense that they demonstrate the ability of our experimental model to detect a reduction in infarct size. It must be stressed that the purpose of this study was to determine whether late PC induces a reduction in infarct size comparable to that effected by early PC. As detailed in "Results," the power of our study to demonstrate a late protective effect similar to that observed during the early phase of PC (ie, a 79% reduction in infarct size) was almost 100%. Thus, there is virtually no chance that a decrease in infarct size similar to that seen in the early phase was missed in the late phase. Furthermore, our study had sufficient (80%) power to detect a 40% reduction in infarct size by late PC, which is less than the reductions noted by Marber et al10 (45% reduction) and Kuzuya et al11 (46% reduction) in their studies of late PC.
Effects of the Early and Late Phases of PC on Stunning
Little is known regarding the ability of ischemic PC to
attenuate the severity of myocardial stunning in the tissue salvaged by
reperfusion after a sustained coronary occlusion associated
with subendocardial infarction. The present results demonstrate for
the first time that the early phase of ischemic PC brings about
a marked improvement in the recovery of contractile function in the
tissue that survives within the risk region. This improvement is very
rapid, becoming manifest as early as 15 minutes after reperfusion (Fig 4), and is sustained for at least 3 days. As elaborated in
"Results," however, the analysis of the relation between
wall thickening and infarct size does not enable us to distinguish
whether the functional improvement was due to reduction of infarct
size, attenuation of stunning, or both. Because the infarct sizes in
group 2 were clustered in the low range of the infarct–to–risk region
ratios and because there was almost no overlap between group 2 and the
other groups (Fig 5), linearity in each experimental group over the
total range of infarct sizes could not be demonstrated. Consequently,
it is not possible to determine whether pigs with comparable infarct
size had different functional recovery in group 2 vis-à-vis the
other groups, ie, whether the enhanced recovery of function was
independent of the reduction in infarct size.
In contrast to the early phase of PC, our study demonstrates that the
late phase of PC had no effect on the recovery of function after a
40-minute coronary occlusion. Here, the analysis of the
wall thickening–infarct size relation (Fig 5) would suggest that late
PC failed to alleviate the severity of stunning in the surviving
myocardium, since the ranges of infarct size were
comparable in the control group and in the late PC groups (groups 3 and
4) and since all points lay along the same regression line.
A limitation of the present study that applies to both the early and the late phases of PC is that in the setting of a subendocardial infarction, in which the transmural distribution of necrotic tissue within the risk region is highly irregular, measurements obtained with a single ultrasonic crystal may not be representative of the overall contractile function of the reperfused region.30 Techniques that provide an integrated assessment of function in the entire risk region (eg, two-dimensional echocardiography) may be better suited to examine the effect of PC on myocardial stunning after a subendocardial infarction.
Effect of the Early Phase of PC on Arrhythmias
Most previous studies in open-chest rats or in isolated rat
hearts have reported a protective effect of early PC against VT and
VF.19 20 21 26 In large animal species, the effects of PC on
arrhythmias have been variable.21 44 Our
present results indicate that early PC does not limit
reperfusion-induced VT, but they do not enable us to assess the effect
of early PC on VF or ischemia-induced VT, because the incidence
of these arrhythmias in control animals was nil (Table 5).
Early PC reduced the number of PVCs after reperfusion (Table 5). It was
interesting that when we performed the 40-minute occlusion 15 minutes
after the end of the PC ischemia, there appeared to be an
exacerbation of reperfusion-induced VF (3 of 3 pigs developed VF in our
pilot studies compared to 0 of 6 pigs in the control group). The fact
that the incidence of reperfusion-induced VF decreased when the
interval between the PC ischemia and the sustained 40-minute
occlusion was lengthened to 25 minutes (1 of 6 pigs, group 2) suggests
that the incidence of arrhythmias after PC may be influenced by
the interval between the PC stimulus and the subsequent
ischemic insult. These apparently paradoxical effects of
ischemic PC on arrhythmias may reflect activation of
the ATP-sensitive K+ channels after brief episodes of
ischemia.45 46 Activation of ATP-sensitive
K+ channels has been suggested to have both proarrhythmic
and antiarrhythmic effects during myocardial ischemia,
depending on the experimental circumstances.47 48
Effect of the Late Phase of PC on Arrhythmias
To date, only two studies14 19 have reported
the effects of the late phase of ischemic PC against
arrhythmias, with conflicting results. Shiki and
Hearse19 demonstrated in open-chest rats that a 5-minute
coronary occlusion attenuated the ventricular
arrhythmias induced by a second coronary occlusion
performed 10 to 60 minutes later; however, the protective effect
against arrhythmias disappeared 24 hours later. In contrast,
Yang et al14 reported in conscious rabbits that a sequence
of four cycles of 5-minute coronary occlusion/10-minute
reperfusion reduced the incidence of ischemia-induced VF during
a 30-minute coronary occlusion performed 24 hours later. In the
present study, late PC with ten 2-minute coronary
occlusions (group 3) had no significant effect on the total number of
PVCs and on the incidence or duration of VT during reperfusion (Table 5). When a sequence of twenty-five 2-minute occlusions was used (group
4), the duration of VT after reperfusion was significantly increased
compared with that in control pigs (Table 5), suggesting that this PC
protocol may have a detrimental effect. Our data, however, do not
enable us to draw conclusions regarding ischemia- or
reperfusion-induced VF and ischemia-induced VT, since these
arrhythmias did not occur in groups 1, 3, or 4. Consequently,
if late PC protects against VF or ischemia-induced VT, this
effect would not have been detected in our study. In view of these
considerations, our results are not in conflict with those of Yang et
al.14 Because of the differences in experimental models,
comparison of our data with those of Shiki and Hearse19 is
difficult.
Conclusions
In summary, the present study is the first direct comparison
of the cardioprotective effects of the early and late phases of
ischemic PC in the same preparation and with the same protocol.
The results reveal striking differences. We found that repetitive
2-minute coronary occlusions have a profound early
infarct–limiting effect, which is associated with a marked enhancement
of the recovery of contractile function. This protection, however,
disappears 24 hours later and cannot be reinstituted by increasing the
number of ischemic episodes during the PC protocol. The
inability of late PC to protect against cell death was observed despite
the use of an animal model of moderate infarct size (averaging only
45% of the risk region). Neither early nor late PC affects VT during
reperfusion, but no conclusions can be drawn regarding VF or
ischemia-induced VT, since our experimental model was not
primarily designed to assess arrhythmias. In investigations of
PC, the number of possible variations in the experimental preparation
or protocol is extremely large. Therefore, it is impossible for any
single study to rule out the existence of late PC against sustained
ischemia, no matter how many groups or protocols are used.
Nevertheless, our data clearly indicate that if a late protective
effect of ischemic PC exists in conscious swine, it must be
weaker than the earlier PC effect.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grants R01 HL-43151 and HL-55757 (Dr Bolli) and by American Heart Association, Kentucky Affiliate, Inc, grants KY-96-GB-31 (Dr Tang) and KY-96-GB-32 (Dr Qiu). We gratefully acknowledge Jennifer S. Pocius and Alejandro Tumang for expert technical assistance, Dr Jane Goldsmith for advice on statistical analysis, and Sandy Dunaway and Kimberly Mayes for secretarial assistance.
Received August 19, 1996; accepted December 24, 1996.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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