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(Circulation Research. 1996;78:676-688.)
© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.

Articles

K⁺ Currents in Human Coronary Artery Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Maik Gollasch, Christian Ried, Rostislav Bychkov, Friedrich C. Luft, Hermann Haller

From the Franz Volhard Clinic, Virchow Klinikum at the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Humboldt University of Berlin (Germany).

Correspondence to Maik Gollasch, MD, PhD, Franz Volhard Clinic, Wiltbergstraße 50, 13122 Berlin, Germany.

	Abstract

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Abstract K⁺ channels and their currents are important in vascular tone regulation and are potential therapeutic targets; however, K⁺ channels in human coronary artery vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have received little attention. We examined K⁺ currents in freshly isolated VSMCs from human coronary arteries (n=368 from 32 human hearts) with conventional patch-clamp or perforated-patch techniques with nystatin. We detected four different K⁺ currents: (1) the delayed rectifier K⁺ current, I_K(dr); (2) the Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ current, I_K(Ca); (3) the nonrectifying noninactivating outward ATP-dependent K⁺ current, I_K(ATP); and (4) the spontaneous transient outward K⁺ current, I_K(STOC). K⁺ channels underlying spontaneous transient outward currents probably represent a single clustered population of Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels functionally associated with Ca²⁺ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Inwardly rectifying K⁺ currents were not observed. K⁺ currents were unevenly distributed in that they were not uniformly exhibited by all cells. The most prominent K⁺ currents were I_K(Ca) (100%) and I_K(dr) (46%). I_K(STOC)s, which have not been previously described in humans, were present in 67% of VSMCs. I_K(ATP) was small under physiological conditions; however, I_K(ATP) increased markedly after cell stimulation with exogenous or endogenous coronary vasodilators. Thus, I_K(ATP) may be particularly relevant in ischemia and could be of special importance as a therapeutic target. We conclude that human coronary VSMCs have unique K⁺ currents that differ sufficiently from those of other species, thus making the investigation of human material clinically relevant. The findings suggest potential avenues for further therapeutic research.

Key Words: K⁺ channels • delayed rectifier current • transient outward current • K⁺ channel openers • pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating peptide

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Plasma membrane K⁺ channels are important in coronary blood flow regulation.¹ Such a role was demonstrated by using K⁺ channel blockers to induce coronary vasospasm² and K⁺ channel openers to relax arteries precontracted with serotonin.³ In coronary and other VSMCs, hyperpolarization after K⁺ channel activation causes voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels to deactivate, leading to relaxation.¹ VSMC K⁺ channels are targets for vasoactive drugs and endogenous ligands.^{1 4 5} The coronary vasorelaxation of several vasodilators, including pinacidil, prostacyclin, and PACAPs, can be blocked by specific K⁺ channel inhibitors.^{3 6 7} Indirect evidence suggests that a glibenclamide-sensitive K⁺ channel is responsible for hypoxic dilatation of coronary arteries.⁸ Further, the basic defect in vasospastic angina pectoris may be impaired K⁺ conductance in coronary VSMCs.²

I_K(Ca) and I_K(dr) have been found in human mesenteric VSMCs but have not been described in human coronary arteries.⁹ Moreover, K⁺ channels are diverse, and their distribution varies in different vascular beds.¹⁰ In coronary arteries from other species, five different K⁺ currents have been described. A large-conductance I_K(Ca) was found in rabbit, pig, and guinea pig.^{11 12 13 14} I_K(dr) was identified in rabbit^{11 15} but not in canine¹⁴ coronary VSMCs. I_K(STOC)s have been described in rabbit and guinea pig VSMCs but not in human VSMCs.^{12 16} Most recently, I_K(ir)s have been described in VSMCs of intracardiac arterioles from guinea pigs.¹⁷ Finally, I_K(ATP)s have been identified in porcine coronary VSMCs by several authors.^{18 19} I_K(ATP)s are activated by synthetic vasodilators such as pinacidil^{3 4 20} and are targets for endogenous vasodilators.^{5 18} However, no electrophysiological information has been published from human coronary VSMCs.

Our aim was to identify and to characterize the basic electrophysiological properties and the outward K⁺ currents in freshly isolated single VSMCs from human coronary arteries. Whole-cell K⁺ currents were measured by conventional patch-clamp technique or by the perforated-patch method with nystatin. We provide evidence for four distinct K⁺ currents, namely, I_K(Ca), I_K(dr), I_K(ATP), and I_K(STOC). I_K(STOC) and I_K(ATP) have not been described in humans. I_K(dr) in human coronary VSMCs is different from I_K(dr) in human mesenteric arteries. Our results show that K⁺ channels are distributed heterogeneously, which may indicate heterogeneous cell populations within the coronary vessel wall.²¹ I_K(Ca), I_K(dr), and I_K(STOC) are prominent in the majority of the cells. I_K(ATP) is small under physiological conditions; however, I_K(ATP) can be induced by cell stimulation with exogenous or endogenous K_(ATP) channel agonists, such as pinacidil or PACAP-27. This finding may have unique clinical significance.

	Materials and Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Coronary Artery Preparations
Human coronary arteries were obtained from the excised native hearts of 21 male and 10 female transplant patients with dilatative cardiomyopathy or coronary heart disease as well as from one male donor heart that could not be transplanted for technical reasons. The tissue was immediately placed in cold (8°C) Hanks' solution (mmol/L: NaCl 119, KCl 4.7, KH₂PO₄ 1.2, NaHCO₃ 25.0, MgSO₄ 1.2, glucose 11.1, EDTA 0.026, and CaCl₂ 2.5 at 5% CO₂/95% O₂) during transportation to the laboratory for further dissection. Left coronary arteries, right coronary arteries, or branches from left, right, or circumflex coronary arteries (diameter, 1.5 mm) were dissected and cleansed of adhering tissue and fat in the Hanks' solution. All coronary arteries were stored in the Hanks' solution at 4°C before use in electrophysiological measurements.

Isolation of VSMCs
The cells were isolated as previously described for rabbit basilar artery and porcine coronary artery with some modifications.^{3 22} The vessels were cut into small segments (4 to 8 mm in length) and placed in a Ca²⁺-free Hanks' solution (mmol/L: NaCl 137, KCl 5.4, KH₂PO₄ 0.44, NaH₂PO₄ 0.42, MgCl₂ 2, CaCl₂ 0.14, EGTA 0.05, glucose 11.11, and HEPES 10, pH 7.4 with NaOH) for 2 to 4 minutes at room temperature (20°C to 24°C). After a longitudinal section was performed, the segments were washed twice in this solution. The segments were then placed in the Ca²⁺-free solution containing 3 mg/mL collagenase (type IA, Sigma Chemical Co), 10 mg/mL BSA (Sigma), and 1 mg/mL elastase (type IIA, Sigma) and were incubated for 30 to 50 minutes with gentle agitation at 36°C. After completion of the digestion, single cells were dispersed by gentle agitation in the Ca²⁺-free Hanks' solution. The cells were stored in Hanks' solution (Ca²⁺, 0.12 mmol/L) containing 1 mg/mL BSA or in a solution containing (mmol/L) NaCl 90, KH₂PO₄ 1.2 , MgCl₂ 5, glucose 5, taurine 20, and HEPES 5 (pH 7.1 with NaOH) at 4°C. The isolation procedure produced high yields of relaxed coronary VSMCs 60 to 120 µm in length and 5 to 12 µm in diameter. The cells were studied between 2 and 12 hours after isolation.

K⁺ Current Recordings
Whole-cell K⁺ currents were measured according to the conventional patch-clamp method of Hamill et al²³ (for details see References 24 and 25) or using the perforated-patch method with nystatin.²⁶ Cells were held at -80 mV, and linear voltage-ramp pulses at 0.67 V/s from -100 to +100 mV or 300-millisecond (or 500-millisecond) depolarizing step pulses to different voltages were applied (stimulation frequency, 0.3 Hz). The external solution E1 contained (mmol/L) NaCl 140, CaCl₂ 1.8, MgCl₂ 1, KCl 5.4, CdCl₂ 0.1, glucose 10, and sodium HEPES 10 (pH 7.4). The patch pipette (resistance, 1 to 4 M) was filled with solution I1 containing (mmol/L) potassium aspartate 80, KCl 30, NaCl 20, MgCl₂ 1, Mg-ATP 3, EGTA 10, and potassium HEPES 5 (pH 7.4). The Cs⁺-dialyzing pipette solution I2 contained (mmol/L) cesium aspartate 80, CsCl 40, TEA 10, MgCl₂ 1, Mg-ATP 3, EGTA 10, and cesium HEPES 5 (pH 7.4). Solutions were superfused through the chamber by gravity at a rate of 2 mL/min. Experiments were done at room temperature (20°C to 24°C). Nystatin (Sigma) was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide and diluted into the pipette solution to give a final concentration ranging from 50 to 100 µg/mL. Whole-cell access was achieved by nystatin within 10 to 20 minutes after seal formation. Whole-cell K⁺ currents were recorded using an Axopatch 200A or a List EPC-7 amplifier, filtered at 5 kHz using an eight-pole low-pass Bessel filter instrument (Frequency Devices), digitized at 10 kHz using a CED1401 interface (Cambridge Electronic Design Limited), and analyzed using CED Patch and Voltage Clamp Software Version 6.08. Series resistance and total cell capacitance were calculated from uncompensated capacitative transients, from 10-millisecond hyperpolarizing linear ramp pulses (10 mV), or by adjusting the Axopatch 200A amplifier series resistance and whole-cell capacitance controls to eliminate the resulting current transitions. Total cell capacitance of the cells was compensated only in some experiments. Series resistance in whole-cell recordings was <10 M and was not corrected. Amplitude of currents in this configuration was always <1000 pA, resulting in a voltage error of <8 mV. Series resistance in perforated-patch recordings was <30 M. Series resistance in perforated-patch recordings was corrected for when currents were >200 pA. The membrane input resistance of the cells was measured using small hyperpolarizing voltage pulses (10 mV, 10 milliseconds) from a holding potential of -80 mV. In this voltage range, the input resistance was large, and time-dependent outward currents were not activated. All data were corrected for a 10-mV liquid junction potential. Only acutely dispersed, spindle-shaped, relaxed cells were examined for K⁺ currents in the electrophysiological experiments. Their passive electrical properties and K⁺ channel currents are analyzed in the present study.

Materials
Pinacidil and iberiotoxin were obtained from RBI. DIDS, niflumic acid, glibenclamide, EGTA, 4-AP, HEPES, and A23187 were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. PACAP-27 was from Peninsula. All salts were obtained from Merck. Stock (10 mmol/L) solutions of pinacidil, A23187, and glibenclamide were made using dimethyl sulfoxide as the solvent. BAPTA-AM (30 µmol/L), a Ca²⁺ chelator that diffuses through membranes (Calbiochem), was used to chelate intracellular Ca²⁺.

Statistical Analysis
All values are given as mean±SEM. The term n represents the number of cells tested. The Wilcoxon rank sum test or the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test was used to determine significant differences. A value of P<.05 was considered statistically significant.

	Results

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Cell Appearance and Passive Membrane Properties
The enzyme treatment released 70% single, spindle-shaped, relaxed coronary VSMCs from the hearts of the patients with cardiomyopathy and from the normal donor heart. The isolation method released only 20% to 30% spindle-shaped relaxed cells from the atherosclerotic plaque-filled coronary arterial walls of the two hearts from patients with coronary heart disease. In 52 cells, the length ranged from 65 to 180 µm, with a mean of 120 µm. Almost all spindle-shaped cells remained relaxed even after 15- to 20-minute superfusion with a physiological salt solution containing 1.8 mmol/L CaCl₂ (E1 without CdCl₂), which indicated that they were Ca²⁺ tolerant. Serotonin and external K⁺ (50 mmol/L) cause direct constriction of human coronary arterial rings.³ Usually a high proportion of the cells contracted with 5 µmol/L serotonin or 50 mmol/L K⁺ by 40% in 20 seconds (using external solution E1 without Cd²⁺) and formed many blebs after contraction. Recovery from serotonin or K⁺ was generally slow (in the order of minutes) and not usually complete. However, it was possible to obtain multiple contractions to serotonin or K⁺ in the same cell. Our observations suggest that the isolated cells were viable and had the necessary receptors, membrane conductances, and intracellular contractile machinery necessary to initiate contraction. Only spindle-shaped, relaxed, freshly isolated cells were used in the following electrophysiological experiments.

The resting membrane potential of 21 cells from the hearts with cardiomyopathy ranged from -35 to -70 mV, with a mean of -53 mV (measured in E1 without Cd²⁺). Similar resting membrane potentials were measured in cells isolated from the nonfailing donor heart. In these cells, the resting membrane potential was -56 mV (n=8). These values are in the range of resting membrane potentials reported for other types of isolated VSMCs, including nonhuman coronary arteries.¹ Using small hyperpolarizing pulses from a holding potential of -80 mV, we calculated the membrane input resistance and the total cell capacitance. Mean values for these parameters were 5.1±0.2 G (n=178) and 32.1±1.2 pF (n=131), respectively, from the hearts with dilatative cardiomyopathy and 4.8±0.4 G (n=26) and 29.3±1.7 pF (n=18), respectively, in cells from the nonfailing donor heart. Assuming a specific capacitance of 1 µF/cm², the membrane surface area of a single cell was 3x10^-5 cm² in both cases. These data suggest that coronary VSMCs isolated from patients with cardiomyopathy are similar to cells isolated from the nonfailing donor heart, since resting membrane potential, input resistance, and calculated membrane surface area of the single cells were not different.

Current Isolation
Voltage-dependent K⁺ currents were studied using 300- or 500-millisecond voltage steps to potentials ranging from -70 to +100 mV from a holding potential of -80 mV or using voltage ramps from -100 to +100 mV. The external solution contained 100 or 200 µmol/L CdCl₂ to block interfering voltage-dependent inward Ca²⁺ currents. Recordings from a total of 368 single acutely dispersed VSMCs were examined for K⁺ currents. Currents were recorded using the standard whole-cell configuration, dialyzing the cells with the internal pipette solution (130 mmol/L K⁺-rich solution with 3 mmol/L ATP and 10 mmol/L EGTA), or using the perforated-patch configuration with nystatin. The latter configuration has the advantage that ionic currents can be examined without the necessity of internal dialysis of the cells, ie, without changing the intracellular milieu.

Voltage-Dependent K⁺ Outward Currents (K_(dr) and K_(Ca) Channels)
Fig 1A illustrates examples of membrane currents elicited during voltage steps or ramp depolarizations in a single coronary VSMC. Step depolarizations elicited outward currents at membrane potentials positive to -40 mV. The current increased as the test potential became more positive. Close examination of the current tracings revealed a sigmoid onset of the outward current with a correspondingly larger and faster onset with depolarization. The corresponding I-V relationship (I-V curve) of the net outward currents is plotted in Fig 1B.

View larger version (27K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Two components of voltage-elicited outward K+ current in VSMCs freshly isolated from human coronary arteries (N-shaped outward K+ current) are shown. A, Recordings of a current family elicited during voltage-step depolarizations from a holding potential of -80 mV. Test potentials ranged between -20 and +80 mV. Currents were recorded in the whole-cell configuration. B, Corresponding mean I-V relationship for the currents recorded from 12 cells in the whole-cell (n=7) or perforated-patch configuration (n=5) (mean current±SEM). IK indicates total outward K+ current. C, Recording of a typical average current (average of five current traces) from the same cell as in panel A. Currents were elicited by a ramp depolarization from -100 to +100 mV. D, Slope conductance of IK as function of the membrane potential (Vm) from the same cell as in panel C. Two maxima of slope conductance at +20 mV and >+80 mV are seen. This may reflect that the first small low-noise component of the outward current, IK(dr), is maximally activated. For determination of the slope conductance (dIK/dVm), the average current of 10 individual current traces elicited by ramp depolarizations was differentiated.

To verify that K⁺ was the major charge carrier of the net outward current, K⁺ was replaced by Cs⁺ and TEA in the whole-cell patch pipette solution. Under these conditions, no outward currents were observed, suggesting that outward currents were carried by K⁺ ions (n=4). The Cl^- channel antagonists niflumic acid (20 µmol/L, n=5, 4±7% current inhibition at +40 mV) and DIDS (100 µmol/L, n=2, 3% and 5% inhibition at +40 mV) had no effect on the outward currents, suggesting that the contribution of Cl^- channels was minimal in our recording conditions. Tail currents recorded at various repolarizing potentials after a prepulse step to +80 mV revealed an average tail current E_K of -78±8 mV (n=4). This value is close to the calculated Nernstian E_K (-83 mV). Our experiments indicate that K⁺ was the major charge carrier.

Two components of the outward current were distinguished by using both voltage-step and -ramp protocols. The first component, I_K(dr), was activated near -40 mV and was small in amplitude, and the current noise was minimal. The second component, I_K(Ca), was activated positive to -20 mV, was large in amplitude, and was extremely noisy. Both current components displayed no or little inactivation during 300- to 500-ms voltage steps (Fig 1A). The I-V curve of the outward current was N-shaped and showed two maxima of slope conductances at +20 and 100 mV. This appearance may reflect the fact that the first small low-noise component of the outward current, I_K(dr), is maximally activated (Fig 1A and 1C). Further evidence that the two macroscopic currents, I_K(dr) and I_K(Ca), were carried by two distinct K⁺ channels was obtained from experiments that examined their sensitivity to the K⁺ channel blockers and intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration.

Fig 2 shows the dose-dependent effects of TEA on the currents. TEA (0.1 to 5 mmol/L) decreased the amount of the I_K(Ca) elicited during strong depolarizations with voltage steps or ramps (Fig 2A and 2B) and reduced the current noise at these positive potentials. In contrast, another fraction of the currents elicited by depolarizations to potentials +20 mV was relatively insensitive to TEA over this concentration range. However, higher doses of TEA (5 mmol/L) also inhibited I_K(dr) at these more negative potentials. To quantify the differential sensitivities of I_K(Ca) and I_K(dr) to TEA, the inhibition of outward current was compared at depolarizations to +80 and +20 mV. Dose-response curves for the inhibition of the two components at +20 and +80 mV are illustrated in Fig 2C. The percent current in the presence of TEA as fraction of its control value (I/I_max) at +80 mV is given as follows:

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Effect of TEA on the voltage-elicited N-shaped outward K+ current containing two components of K+ current. A, Inhibition of outward K+ currents by TEA (5 mmol/L). Shown are recordings of a family of currents elicited during voltage-step depolarizations from a holding potential of -80 mV. Test potentials were between -70 and +80 mV (whole-cell configuration). B, Recording of currents elicited by ramp depolarizations before (control) and after application of TEA at different concentrations (10 µmol/L, 100 µmol/L, 1 mmol/L, and 5 mmol/L). At micromolar TEA concentrations, the noisy IK(Ca) was reduced. IK indicates total outward K+ current (whole-cell configuration). C, Mean dose-response relation showing the effect of TEA on outward K+ currents. I/Imax indicates percentage of current in the presence of TEA as a fraction of its control value. Currents were measured at +20 mV (left) and +80 mV (right), and the effects of TEA were plotted against normalized current amplitudes. Data points of the right graph were fit to Equation 1 (, mean±SEM of 5 to 7 cells). A Ki value of 255 µmol/L was calculated for the data at +80 mV. Data points of the left graph were fit to Equation 2 (, mean±SEM of 4 to 12 cells). Ki values of 21.1 mmol/L and 255 µmol/L were calculated for the data at +20 mV (see text).

(1)

where [TEA] is the dose of TEA, and K_i1 is the apparent dissociation constant. The data points were well fitted by this equation, consistent with a 1:1 binding of TEA to a receptor with a K_i1 of 255 µmol/L at +80 mV.

The dose-response curve measured for outward currents at +20 mV was fitted by the following equation:

(2)

where A and B are constants determining the current fractions inhibited by TEA with K_i1 and K_i2, respectively; K_i1 is apparent dissociation constant obtained from Equation 1; and K_i2 is a second dissociation constant. The data points were well fitted by this equation, consistent with a voltage-independent 1:1 binding of TEA to the same receptor as described for TEA binding on large-conductance K_(Ca) channels in arterial VSMCs²⁷ and an additional 1:1 binding to a second receptor with a K_i2 of 21.2 mmol/L at +20 mV. Functionally, the equation indicates that TEA inhibits two different K⁺ channels or interacts with two binding sites with different affinities on a single-channel protein.

In other experiments, blockade of K⁺ outward currents by 4-AP was examined. At all concentrations tested, 4-AP appeared to preferentially inhibit the low-noise current, I_K(dr), which was activated at negative potentials (Fig 3). The current noise of I_K(Ca) at positive potentials was little affected by 4-AP; however, a small decrease in current at +80 mV was observed. This decrease in total outward current was attributed to blockade of I_K(dr), which may also contribute current at positive potentials. Dose-response curves for the inhibition of I_K(dr) by 4-AP at +20 mV is shown in Fig 3C. The points were well fitted by the following equation:

View larger version (26K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Effect of 4-AP on the voltage-elicited N-shaped outward K+ current containing two components of K+ current. A, Inhibition of outward K+ currents by 4-AP (5 mmol/L). Shown are recordings of a family of currents elicited during voltage-step depolarizations from a -80-mV holding potential. Test potentials were between -70 and +80 mV (whole-cell configuration). B, Recording of currents elicited by ramp depolarizations before (control) and after application of 4-AP at different concentrations (100 µmol/L, 1 mmol/L, and 5 mmol/L). Low concentrations of 4-AP inhibited IK(dr); however, as the 4-AP concentration was increased to millimolar range, a slight reduction of the total outward current was observed at positive membrane potentials. IK indicates total outward K+ current (whole-cell configuration). C, Mean dose-response relation showing the effect of 4-AP on outward K+ currents. I/Imax indicates percentage of current in the presence of 4-AP as a fraction of its control value. Currents were measured at +20 mV (left) and +80 mV (right), and the effects of 4-AP were plotted against normalized current amplitudes. Data points of both graphs were fit to Equation 3 (, mean±SEM of 4 to 8 cells). A Ki value of 1.02 mmol/L was calculated for the data at +20 mV.

(3)

consistent with a 1:1 binding of 4-AP to a receptor with a K_i of 1.02 mmol/L at +20 mV. At positive potentials (+80 mV), the highest dose of 4-AP (5 to 10 mmol/L) produced only a 20% inhibition of the total current. These data suggest that one population of K⁺ channels, namely, K_(dr), is blocked by 4-AP. The combination of 4-AP (5 mmol/L) and TEA (5 mmol/L) almost completely blocked the outward K⁺ currents at +20 and +80 mV (n=6).

Iberiotoxin is a selective high-affinity blocker of large-conductance K_(Ca) channels. We used this compound to test the contribution of these channels to the macroscopic currents. Fig 4A shows an experiment with iberiotoxin. Iberiotoxin (100 and 300 nmol/L) administration was similar to low concentrations of TEA, in that the toxin selectively inhibited the large noisy component of the K⁺ outward current, I_K(Ca) (100 nmol/L, n=12; 300 nmol/L, n=23). No difference was detected between the effect of 100 and 300 nmol/L iberiotoxin on the total outward K⁺ current; 300 nmol/L iberiotoxin did not further reduce the K⁺ current that had been reduced by 100 nmol/L iberiotoxin (n=12). Both concentrations of iberiotoxin had little effect on the smaller, less noisy component of the outward I_K(dr).

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Pharmacological separation of the two components of voltage-elicited N-shaped outward K+ current (A, B, and C). Shown are the effects of iberiotoxin (ITX), A23187, and BAPTA-AM on K+ currents recorded during ramp depolarizations from a -80-mV holding potential. A, ITX (100 nmol/L and 300 nmol/L) reduced the noisy IK(Ca) at relatively positive potentials. B, The Ca2+ ionophore A23187 (30 µmol/L) induced a noisy outward current at relatively positive potentials that was blocked by ITX (300 nmol/L). Note that ITX additionally blocked a component of the control current (compare with panel A). C, The membrane-permeable Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM (30 µmol/L) reduced the noisy IK(Ca) at relatively positive potentials. ITX (300 nmol/L) did not further block the remaining IK(dr) (not shown; compare with panels A and B). IK indicates total outward K+ current (perforated-patch configuration; panels A, B, and C). D, Voltage dependence of inactivation of IK(dr). Shown is the relationship between peak outward current at test potentials of +20 mV () or +80 mV () and membrane potential (preconditioning potential) (n=10). At +20 mV (test potential), the relationship was fitted by Boltzmann equation with V0.5 of -26 mV, a steepness factor of 12.1 mV, Imax of 73.1 pA, and a noninactivating component of 19.0 pA (26% of Imax). At +80 mV, the relationship was fitted by Boltzmann equation with V0.5 of -28 mV, a steepness factor of 11.0 mV, Imax of 121.3 pA, and a noninactivating component of 30.0 pA (25% of Imax). The Boltzmann equation is as follows: I/Imax={1+exp[(V-V0.5)/k]}-1, where k (in millivolts) is the steepness factor, V0.5 (in millivolts) is the midpoint of inactivation, V (in millivolts) is the preconditioning potential; Imax is the current measured at the test potential (, +20 mV; , +80 mV) from a preconditioning potential of -80 mV; and I is current measured at the test potential (, +20 mV; , +80 mV) from preconditioning potentials between -80 mV and +80 mV. ITX (100 nmol/L) and Cd2+ (0.1 mmol/L) were present. Currents were recorded in the perforated-patch (n=4) or whole-cell configuration (n=6). In these experiments, membrane potential was held at -80 mV for 60 seconds and then stepped to preconditioning voltage (10-second prepulse) between -80 and +80 mV (in 10-mV increments). This was followed by a 10-millisecond pulse to -80 mV (closing any open channel) and finally to depolarized test potentials (500-millisecond test pulse) of +20 mV or +80 mV for 500 milliseconds.

Studies examining the sensitivity of the two components to the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration were performed using the perforated-patch method with nystatin. Addition of the Ca²⁺ ionophore A23187 (10 µmol/L, n=12), which increases membrane permeability for Ca²⁺, induced an enhancement of the large noisy component of the outward current (Fig 4B). This enhancement was voltage dependent and was blocked by iberiotoxin (300 nmol/L, n=3; Fig 4B) or by low doses of TEA (0.5 to 1 mmol/L). In contrast, addition of the membrane-permeable Ca²⁺ chelator BAPTA-AM (30 µmol/L, n=15) reduced the large noisy component of the outward current from 360±45 to 78±27 pA at +80 mV. During both the voltage-step and -ramp protocols, there was far less noise than was present under the control condition. The less noisy component of outward current that was activated at more negative potentials was relatively insensitive to BAPTA-AM. At +20 mV, BAPTA-AM had no effect on the outward current (Fig 4C). These data suggest that the large noisy component of outward current, I_K(Ca), which was activated at more positive potentials, was Ca²⁺ sensitive. The second, small, low-noise component of outward current, I_K(dr), was relatively insensitive to Ca²⁺. Since I_K(Ca) is a large, noisy, voltage-dependent, Ca²⁺-sensitive current that is blocked by iberiotoxin or low doses of TEA, it most likely can be attributed to the opening of large-conductance K_(Ca) channels. The small, low-noise component of current was also voltage dependent, displayed Ca²⁺ insensitivity, and was blocked by 4-AP. Because this current resembles delayed rectifier K⁺ currents in portal vein,²⁸ cerebral artery,²⁹ and renal artery cells,³⁰ we referred to this current as I_K(dr).

Inactivation kinetics of I_K(dr) were studied in 10 single cells by a double-pulse protocol and in the presence of iberiotoxin (100 nmol/L) and Cd²⁺ (200 µmol/L) (to inhibit I_K(Ca)) (Fig 4D). The degree of inactivation was assessed by examining the peak outward current at test potentials of +20 mV (circles in Fig 4D) after holding the membrane (preconditioning) potential at voltages between -80 and +80 mV for 10 seconds. The peak outward current should be proportional to the degree of inactivation that occurred during the preconditioning potential. Membrane depolarization increased inactivation, plotted in Fig 4A as a decrease in the availability of the current for activation. V_0.5 was -26 mV and increased as much as e-fold per 12.1 mV (steepness factor k) depolarization, I_max was 73.1 pA, and a noninactivating component was 19.0 pA (26% of I_max). Similar results were obtained using test potentials of +80 mV.

Both I_K(Ca) and I_K(dr) were revealed by N-shaped I-V curves and were found in 136 (46%) of 293 cells isolated from coronary arteries of 31 patients with dilatative cardiomyopathy and in 18 (64%) of 28 cells isolated from coronary arteries of the nonfailing donor heart (see Fig 1). In 155 of 321 cells (145 of 293 cells of patients with dilatative cardiomyopathy and 10 of 28 cells isolated from coronary arteries of the nonfailing donor heart), I-V curves were S-shaped, as predicted for an outward current carried by one current component (Fig 5). The current was noisy, activated at potentials positive to +10 mV, showed one maximum of slope conductances at +90 mV (Fig 5A through 5D), and was blocked by low concentrations of TEA (K_i, 150 µmol/L) (Fig 6A and 6C). The current was almost completely blocked by iberiotoxin (100 nmol/L, n=6; 300 nmol/L, n=12) (Fig 6E), increased by A23187 (30 µmol/L, n=9) (Fig 6F), but was not affected by 5 mmol/L 4-AP (Fig 6B and 6D). These data indicate that cells with S-shaped I-V curves of outward current expressed only I_K(Ca).

View larger version (27K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 5. Voltage-elicited S-shaped outward K+ current containing one component of K+ current in VSMCs freshly isolated from human coronary arteries (S-shaped outward K+ current). A, Recordings of a family of currents elicited during voltage-step depolarizations from a holding potential of -80 mV. Test potentials were between -70 and +80 mV (whole-cell configuration). B, Corresponding mean I-V relationship for the currents recorded from 12 cells in the whole-cell (n=8) or perforated-patch configuration (n=4) (mean current±SEM). IK indicates total outward K+ current. C, Recording of a typical average current (average of five current traces) from the same cell as in panel A. Currents were elicited by a ramp depolarization from -100 to +100 mV. D, Graph showing the slope conductance of IK as function of the membrane potential (Vm) from the same cell as in panel C. One maximum of slope conductance at a potential positive to +90 mV is seen. This may reflect that the first small low-noise component of the outward current, IK(dr), is not present (compare with Fig 2). For determination of the slope conductance (dIK/dVm), the average current of 10 individual current traces elicited by ramp depolarizations was differentiated.

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 6. Effects of TEA and 4-AP on voltage-elicited S-shaped outward K+ current. A and B, Inhibition of the current by TEA (A) but not by 4-AP (B). Currents were recorded during voltage ramps from a holding potential of -80 mV. C and D, Mean dose-response relations showing the effects of TEA (C) and 4-AP (D) on outward K+ currents. I/Imax indicates percentage of current in the presence of the blockers as a fraction of its control value. Currents were measured at +80 mV, and the effects of the blockers were plotted against normalized current amplitudes. Data points in panel C were fit to Equation 1 (, mean±SEM of 4 to 8 cells). A Ki value of 150 µmol/L was calculated for the data at +80 mV (C). Data points in panel D were obtained for 5 to 10 cells tested (mean±SEM). E and F, Iberiotoxin (ITX, 300 nmol/L) reduced the K+ current almost completely. Note that no significant IK(dr) is seen after blockade of the S-shaped current by the toxin (B). The Ca2+ ionophore A23187 (30 µmol/L) induced a noisy outward current at relatively positive potentials (>-10 mV) that was blocked by the membrane-permeable Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM (30 µmol/L). Currents were recorded during voltage ramps from a holding potential of -80 mV. IK indicates total outward K+ current (whole-cell [A, B, and E] or perforated-patch [F] configuration).

An analysis of I₈₀ (outward current with dominant I_K(Ca)) on the membrane capacitance revealed a positive correlation between I_80, of cells with N-shaped I-V curves, and membrane capacitance (r=.79) (Fig 7A). The correlation coefficient of .79 indicates that K_(Ca) channels are expressed at a similar density in small and large cells with N-shaped I-V curves. I₈₀ correlated with the membrane capacitance of cells with S-shaped I-V curves (r=.75), indicating that K_(Ca) channels in these cells are also expressed at a similar density (Fig 7B).

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 7. Dependence of the total outward K+ current (IK) peak amplitude on the cell membrane capacitance. Peak amplitudes of IK were measured at +20 and +80 mV. A, Cells with voltage-elicited N-shaped outward K+ currents. B, Cells with voltage-elicited S-shaped outward K+ currents. indicates peak amplitudes of IK measured at +80 mV; , peak amplitudes of IK measured at +20 mV. Cells exhibited N-shaped currents when the slope conductance (dIK/dVm) showed two peaks and S-shaped currents when dIK/dVm showed only one peak (compare with Figs 1 and 5). A, Upper continuous line is a regression line of data points () with a regression coefficient of .79. Lower continuous line is a regression line of data points () with a regression coefficient of .60. B, Continuous line is a regression line of data points () with a regression coefficient of .75.

I₈₀ of cells with N-shaped I-V curves was 277±14 pA (n=142), corresponding to a current density of 6.2 pA/pF (d₁, estimated by linear regression; see Fig 7A). I₈₀ of cells with S-shaped I-V curves was 255±11 pA (n=141), corresponding to a current density of 4.8 pA/pF (d₂, estimated by linear regression; see Fig 7B). At +20 mV, I₂₀ (outward current with significant I_K(dr)) of cells with N-shaped I-V curves was 120±8 pA (n=142), corresponding to a current density of 1.9 pA/pF (d₃, estimated by linear regression; see Fig 7A). I₂₀ of cells with S-shaped I-V curves was 32±3 pA (n=141), which is close to the leakage current (estimated by the calculated input resistance). Since the sum of d₂ and d₃ is close to d₁ (plus the leakage current density), we suggest that K_(Ca) channels are expressed in a similar density in both cell types (eg, in cells with N-shaped and S-shaped I-V curves), whereas K_(dr) channels are expressed in a similar density in only one population (50%) of cells (with N-shaped I-V curves).

I_K(ATP)
Pinacidil is a K_(ATP) channel opener.^{4 20} To provide evidence for I_K(ATP) in human coronary VSMCs, we examined the effect of this drug on K⁺ outward currents. In 16 cells, pinacidil (1 to 20 µmol/L) induced a large nonrectifying current. At +40 mV, 1 and 20 µmol/L pinacidil increased the outward current from 160±28 to 295±40 pA (n=9) and from 148±47 to 309±52 pA (n=4), respectively. As shown in Fig 8, E_K was shifted to -72±8 mV (n=16). This value is close to the calculated E_K, suggesting that the pinacidil-activated current was carried by the movement of K⁺ through K⁺ channels. The pinacidil-induced current was linear over most of the voltage range and showed no threshold of activation, as expected if the channels show little voltage dependence. The pinacidil-induced current occurred within seconds, showed no inactivation, and was reversible after the drug was removed from the bath (not shown).

View larger version (14K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 8. IK(ATP) in VSMCs freshly isolated from human coronary arteries. A, Glibenclamide (Glib, 3 µmol/L) had no effect on control voltage-elicited outward K+ current. B, Pinacidil (Pin, 1 µmol/L) induced a voltage-independent nonrectifying K+ current that was partially blocked by Glib (3 µmol/L). C, PACAP-27 (100 nmol/L) induced an outward K+ current that was partially blocked by Glib (3 µmol/L). Shown are superimposed currents recorded during ramp depolarizations. Holding potential was -80 mV. IK indicates total outward K+ current (whole-cell configuration [A, B, and C]).

Glibenclamide (3 µmol/L) blocked the pinacidil-induced (1 µmol/L) current from 329±20 to 158±27 pA at +40 mV (Fig 8B, n=10). The glibenclamide-sensitive current induced by pinacidil was linear over the voltage range, was not inactivating during 300- to 500-millisecond step pulses, and showed no inactivation using double-pulse protocols as described in Fig 8 (data not shown). Glibenclamide had no effect on the outward curves of I_K(Ca) and I_K(dr) (at +40 mV, 210±25 and 218±21 pA before and after glibenclamide, respectively; n=6) (Fig 8A). The voltage independence and glibenclamide sensitivity of the pinacidil-induced current suggest an activation of a current that is conducted by K_(ATP) channels.

Further evidence that K_(ATP) channels are present in human coronary VSMCs was obtained from experiments that examined the effect of a putative humoral activator of I_K(ATP). We used PACAP-27, which relaxes human coronary arteries in a dose-dependent and glibenclamide-sensitive manner.⁷ An experiment with PACAP-27 is shown in Fig 8C. Similar to pinacidil, PACAP-27 (100 nmol/L) induced a large nonrectifying current. In the presence of PACAP-27, the outward current was increased from 178±26 to 380±31 pA at +40 mV (n=8). E_K was shifted to more negative potentials, suggesting that the current activated by PACAP-27 is carried by K⁺ ions. The effects of PACAP-27 were reversible upon washout of the hormone. Glibenclamide (3 µmol/L) blocked the PACAP-27–induced (100 nmol/L) current from 368±34 to 239±24 pA at +40 mV (Fig 8C, n=5). The glibenclamide-sensitive current induced by PACAP-27 was almost linear over the voltage range, was not inactivating during 300- to 500-millisecond step pulses, and showed no inactivation using double-pulse protocols as described in Fig 4D (data not shown). These data indicate that I_K(ATP) is small in physiological conditions but can be stimulated after application of exogenous or endogenous K_(ATP) channel agonists, namely, pinacidil or PACAP-27, respectively. However, in addition to enhancing I_K(ATP), pinacidil and PACAP-27 may also stimulate a glibenclamide-insensitive K⁺ channel current (I_K(Ca) and/or I_K(dr)).^{31 32}

I_K(to) (K_(to) Channels)
In 4% of the cells studied (n=12/321), a voltage-dependent outward current was observed. This current was activated by depolarization and had many of the characteristics of the fast transient K⁺ current ("A"-type current) observed in neurons. Currents were activated at potentials positive to 0 mV. The currents were transient and were inactivated to steady state levels over the duration of the pulse (within 100 to 200 milliseconds). The decay of inactivation was adequately fitted by a single exponential using the following equation:

(4)

where A and B are constants, t is the time, and tau is the time constant of decay. Using this equation, at a membrane potential of +50 mV, tau was 65±11 milliseconds (n=6) and decreased with more positive pulse potentials. The cells with I_K(to) were spindle-shaped, as were all cells used in this study. The cells had an input resistance of 5.2±1.8 G, a capacitance of 29.7±8.4 pF, and a calculated membrane area of 3x10^-5 cm². Because of the low number of cells exhibiting transient outward currents, we did not perform further pharmacological characterization of I_K(to).

I_K(STOC)
I_K(STOC)s were observed in 70% of coronary VSMCs studied with the perforated-patch technique. Cells from coronary arteries of patients with dilatative cardiomyopathy showed I_K(STOC)s in 67%, whereas those from nonfailing donor hearts demonstrated I_K(STOC)s in 70%. Membrane current recordings from a voltage-clamped cell at different voltages are shown in Fig 9. At -40 mV, the I_K(STOC)s had a duration of 100 milliseconds. The current increased to a peak of 55 pA in the largest transients in <30 milliseconds and then decayed more slowly to the basal current level. The amplitude of the largest I_K(STOC)s decreased with hyperpolarization (16±7 pA at -60 mV, n=4; 48±16 pA at -30 mV, n=6; and 112±34 at 0 mV, n=5), as did the frequency of the I_K(STOC) discharges (0.37±0.18 Hz at -60 mV, 1.4±0.6 Hz at -30 mV, and 2.3±0.8 at 0 mV; time of recording, 3 to 6 minutes). E_K of I_K(STOC)s was seen between -70 and -60 mV (interpolated), close to the calculated E_K. Thus, the generated currents appeared to be carried by K⁺ ions.

View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 9. IK(STOC)s. A, Recordings of IK(STOC)s during voltage-step depolarizations from a holding potential of -80 mV. Test potentials were -5, +25, and +80 mV. B, Recordings of IK(STOC)s during steady-state holding potentials of -40 mV (upper two traces). IK(STOC)s are blocked after application of iberiotoxin (300 nmol/L) (lower two traces). Currents were recorded with the perforated-patch method (A and B).

The I_K(STOC)s were blocked completely by 300 nmol/L iberiotoxin (n=12, Fig 9B). I_K(STOC)s were never observed when the cells were held under voltage clamp using standard patch-clamp recording in the whole-cell configuration with 10 mmol/L EGTA in the pipette solution, thereby increasing intracellular Ca²⁺ buffering (n=50). These data suggest that an elevated concentration of subsarcolemmal Ca²⁺ was required to stimulate large-conductance K_(Ca) channels generating I_K(STOC)s in human coronary VSMCs.

I_K(ir)
Step depolarizations elicited similar outward currents (I_K(dr) and I_K(Ca)) when the holding potential was -40 mV instead of -80 mV (see Fig 1). In contrast, step hyperpolarizations from a holding potential of -40 mV to potentials negative to E_K did not elicit inward currents (with exception of the leakage current) (n=21). Ba²⁺ (0.5 mmol/L) had no effect on currents elicited at potentials negative to -40 mV (n=3). Thus, the corresponding I-V relationship (I-V curve) of the net currents showed strong outward rectification, which suggests that I_K(ir)s are not detectable in coronary artery VSMCs.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
The present study is the first to characterize and identify K⁺ currents in freshly isolated single human coronary VSMCs. Despite similar microscopic appearance and passive electrical properties, the K⁺ channels displayed functional heterogeneity. The most prominent K⁺ currents in human coronary VSMCs were I_K(Ca) (100%), I_K(dr) (46%), and I_K(STOC) (67%). I_K(STOC)s have not been described in humans; these currents may represent K⁺ currents through a single clustered population of maximal K_(Ca) channels that have been activated by local and transient Ca²⁺ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.^{33 34} I_K(ir)s were not observed. I_K(ATP) was small under physiological conditions but increased markedly when the cell was activated by stimulation with exogenous or endogenous coronary vasodilators. This observation suggests that the K_(ATP) channel is closed under most circumstances. However, under pathological conditions, such as ischemia, this channel may be a useful therapeutic target. Although the majority of our data show that the basic properties of K⁺ channel types in human coronary VSMCs are similar to those measured in a vast number of other vascular preparations, our results demonstrate that K⁺ currents in coronary arteries have features distinct from other vascular beds in humans⁹ and coronary VSMCs of other species.^{11 13 14 35}

I_K(dr) and I_K(Ca)
We found that the outward K⁺ current that activated upon depolarization could be divided into two components in our cells. One component was carried by large-conductance K_(Ca) channels, and the other was carried by channels whose characteristics resemble those of delayed rectifier channels in other types of smooth muscle cells. We termed these components I_K(Ca) and I_K(dr), respectively. The current activated at potentials negative to +20 mV was mainly I_K(dr) and was blocked by 4-AP and possibly also by high concentrations of TEA. The current activated at positive potentials consisted of both currents and was thus only partially blocked by 4-AP. I_K(Ca) was blocked by low concentrations of TEA, as well as by iberiotoxin (100 and 300 nmol/L), and was sensitive to the internal Ca²⁺ concentration. Measurements of K⁺ channel unitary current amplitudes underlying TEA- and iberiotoxin-sensitive I_K(Ca) directly from low-noise whole-cell current recordings revealed a large unitary conductance of 130 pS between -30 and +10 mV (M. Gollasch and R. Bychkov, unpublished data, 1995), as reported for large-conductance maxi Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels. The combination of 4-AP (5 mmol/L) and TEA (5 mmol/L) almost completely blocked the outward current.

Large-conductance K_(Ca) channels have been described in almost all VSMC types studied so far, including coronary arteries of guinea pigs,¹² dogs,¹⁴ and rabbits.^{11 13} Single-channel experiments revealed that there are at least three K_(Ca) channel subtypes (K_L, K_S, and K_M) in VSMCs.³⁶ In human coronary arteries, the K_i value from inhibiting I_K(Ca) with TEA (K_i at +80 mV, 150 µmol/L) was 6.3-fold lower than K_i observed after TEA in human mesenteric arteries (K_i at +80 mV, 850 µmol/L). Both currents were completely blocked by 100 nmol/L iberiotoxin. Although the basic properties of K_(Ca) channels in human coronary arteries are not different from those described in arteries from other species,^{11 13 27 30} our results indicate that there are differences in TEA sensitivity between K_(Ca) channels in human coronary arteries and in human mesenteric arteries. Since both I_K(Ca) TEA-inhibition dose-response curves were well fitted by a Langmuir equation with a Hill coefficient of 1, both preparations may express only a single dominant population of different K_(Ca) channels. This possibility may represent an important difference in rabbit coronary VSMC I_K(Ca) compared with human I_K(Ca) (K_i at +60 mV, between 0.3 and 1 mmol/L; Hill coefficient unequal to 1). Whether or not different K_(Ca) channels in human coronary and mesenteric smooth muscle cells have different functions in the regulation of vascular tone and/or smooth muscle cell proliferation remains to be determined.

K_(dr) channels have been described in noncoronary VSMCs^{9 28 29 30} and in coronary VSMCs from rabbits.^{11 13 15} In human coronary VSMCs, we found a 4-AP–sensitive component of outward current that had characteristics similar to the basic properties of I_K(dr)s reported by others in smooth muscle cells from different preparations.^{13 15 28 29 30} The K_i of 4-AP in human coronary VSMCs was 1.02 mmol/L. This value is close to the sensitivity of I_K(dr) to 4-AP in human mesenteric arteries (K_i at +20 mV, 1.04 mmol/L).⁹ However, marked differences were observed in the kinetic properties of I_K(dr)s in both preparations. First, I_K(dr) in human mesenteric VSMCs inactivated more rapidly than in human coronary VSMCs. In mesenteric arteries, I_K(dr) inactivated by 50% within 300 milliseconds (at +80 mV). In human coronary arteries, on the other hand, this value was 10%. Second, in human mesenteric arteries, V_0.5 was seen at -38.0 and -29.7 mV for transient and sustained current components, respectively. The currents increased as much as e-fold per 5.5-mV (steepness factor k) and 6.2-mV depolarization, respectively. In human coronary arteries, V_0.5 was observed at -26.0 mV, and I_K(dr) increased e-fold per 12.1 mV (k). These differences may indicate that diverse K_(dr) channels are expressed in different human vascular beds. The inactivation parameters of human coronary I_K(dr) are also different from those reported for K_(dr) channels in many differing nonhuman vascular preparations, including coronary arteries.^{13 15 28 29 37 38}

4-AP–sensitive K_(dr) channels were not expressed in all VSMCs isolated from human coronary arteries. The reason for this finding is unclear. One possible explanation is the existence of heterogeneous coronary VSMCs. In agreement with this suggestion are morphological and biochemical studies demonstrating the heterogeneity of VSMCs in the arterial wall of pulmonary arteries.²¹ Alternatively, some cells may not express the channels because of different metabolic states induced by the cell isolation procedure or because of channel rundown after the isolation procedure. In this context, it should be noted that 4-AP–sensitive K_(dr) channels were detected by Xu and Lee³⁵ in canine coronary arteries but not by Buljubasic et al,¹⁴ who studied the same preparation.

I_K(to)
We observed a voltage-dependent transient outward current, I_K(to), in 4% of VSMCs. This current was activated at potentials positive to 0 mV and inactivated very rapidly over the duration of the pulse (tau, 65 milliseconds at +50 mV). The time constant of I_K(to) decay decreased with more positive pulse potentials. The current had characteristics of the fast transient K⁺ current ("A"-type current) observed in neurons and with a 4-AP–sensitive voltage-dependent outward K⁺ current, I_fo (activation positive to -65 mV; tau, 65 milliseconds at +20 mV), in VSMCs of the portal vein.³⁹ However, the time constant of I_fo decay increased as the amplitude of the voltage step increased. Therefore, we suggest that I_K(to) has not been described in any VSMCs so far. Possibly, it is present only in human coronary VSMCs. The current's function is unknown. Because of the low number of cells exhibiting transient outward currents, we could not perform further pharmacological and electrophysiological characterization of I_K(to).

K_(ATP) Channels
We found that pinacidil and PACAP-27 at concentrations that induce human coronary vasorelaxation^{3 7} led to activation of a K⁺ current that shared several properties with the I_K(ATP) that was activated by pinacidil and other K⁺ channel openers in noncoronary vascular preparations.^{4 20} This K⁺ current showed little voltage sensitivity. For example, the current responded almost instantaneously to changes in voltage. Moreover, the current was sensitive to glibenclamide. The current also shifted the reversal potential of the entire transmembrane current, thereby determining resting membrane potential, to potentials near the E_K.

The results of our studies may have therapeutic implications. For instance, cardiac and coronary K_(ATP) channels apparently operate with very low activity under normal metabolic conditions. However, they are activated when the oxygen supply and, consequently, the intracellular high-energy phosphate values fall below critical levels.⁸ Thus, the opening of K_(ATP) channels may be considered as an "emergency" response to prevent energy failure and to preserve the viability of the tissue during ischemic episodes. Recent studies suggest that pinacidil may have beneficial effects in the ischemic myocardium. Pinacidil and other K⁺ channel openers are viewed as exogenous "ischemic preconditioners," which enable the heart to survive during limited periods of ischemia by opening K_(ATP) channels. Blockade of K_(ATP) channels with glibenclamide interrupts this process in several animal species, including rabbits, dogs, and pigs.⁴⁰ In humans, glibenclamide at oral doses sufficient to treat type II diabetes mellitus prevented the beneficial effects of preconditioning.⁴¹ The cardiovascular mortality was threefold higher in diabetics treated with tolbutamide, another sulfonylurea that blocks K_(ATP) channels, compared with treatment with insulin.⁴² Thus, opening of K_(ATP) channels appears to be a necessary link in the chain of events leading to cardioprotection and "preconditioning" initiated by endogenous signals, such as factors from heart muscle (adenosine) or perivascular nerves (calcitonin gene–related peptide and PACAP-27) that regulate smooth muscle membrane potential. These factors could conceivably place the heart in a state of preconditioning by opening K_(ATP) channels. The present data demonstrating that PACAP-27 and pinacidil activate coronary K_(ATP) channels in humans support the view.

I_K(STOC)
I_K(STOC)s were observed in 67% of cells tested. I_K(STOC)s with a similar duration were observed in VSMCs from guinea pig coronary artery, rabbit ear artery, and dog carotid artery; however, I_K(STOC)s have not been described in humans.^{12 16 43} Even when internal Ca²⁺ was low-buffered with EGTA, I_K(STOC)s were not observed in canine coronary artery, canine renal artery, or rabbit coronary artery.^{11 13 30} I_K(STOC)s may reflect K⁺ currents through a single clustered population of iberiotoxin-sensitive maxi K_(Ca) channels that have been activated by local and transient Ca²⁺ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum.^{16 33} Nelson et al³⁴ proposed that I_K(STOC)s control the diameter of small myogenic cerebral arteries. Although the physiological meaning of I_K(STOC)s for the regulation of large epicardial arteries is presently unclear, the striking similarity of the present results and those obtained in other smooth muscle cells suggests that these phenomena may be common in VSMCs, including coronary arteries of humans.

I_K(ir)
I-V relationships recorded around the resting membrane potential in submucosal and cerebral arterioles and in isolated vascular cells of resistance-sized cerebral arteries show inward rectification; namely, the conductance is higher for inward than for outward currents.⁴⁴ Our data indicate that inward rectifier K⁺ channels are not functional in VSMCs of large epicardial coronary arteries. In contrast to their putative role in resistance-sized coronary arteries,¹ they do not underlie the resting K⁺ conductance and so do not play a major role in the maintenance of the resting potential of epicardial coronary arteries in humans.

In conclusion, the present study is the first characterization of K⁺ channel currents in human coronary VSMCs. Although the basic properties of the K⁺ channel types in human coronary arteries are similar to those measured in a vast number of other preparations, we found two K⁺ currents (I_K(STOC) and K_(to)) that have not been described in humans. We found K_(dr), which has features distinct from the voltage-dependent I_K(dr), in human mesenteric artery. We observed I_K(ATP), which was largely quiescent until activated by vasodilators. The characterization was possible because of the isolation method, which used fresh human coronary arteries. The identified K⁺ channels may function as important mechanisms against coronary artery VSMC depolarization and, hence, coronary vasoconstriction. The K⁺ channels possibly serve to prevent vasospasm and are potential targets of pharmacological vasodilators. The electrophysiological and pharmacological profile of the currents we identified allows the investigation of different K⁺ channel types in intact coronary arteries and may foster the development of antianginal drugs selectively targeting K⁺ channels.

	Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms

 

4-AP = 4-aminopyridine d1, d2, d3 = current density of 6.2, 4.8, and 1.9 pA/pF EK = K+ reversal potential I/Imax = percent current as fraction of its control value I20, I80 = peak outward current measured at +20 and +80 mV IK(ATP) = ATP-dependent K+ channel current IK(Ca) = Ca2+-activated K+ current IK(dr) = delayed rectifier K+ current IK(ir) = inward rectifier K+ current IK(STOC) = spontaneous transient outward K+ current IK(to) = transient outward K+ current I-V = current-voltage K(ATP) channel = ATP-dependent K+ channel K(Ca) channel = Ca2+-activated K+ channel K(dr) channel = delayed rectifier K+ channel K(to) channel = transient outward K+ channel PACAP = pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating peptide TEA = tetraethylammonium chloride V0.5 = half-maximal inactivation VSMC = vascular smooth muscle cell

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Ha 1388/2-3) and by the Bundesministerium für Forschung und Technologie (Dr Gollasch). We thank Prof R. Hetzer from the Deutsches Herzzentrum, Berlin, for supplying us with tissue from human hearts during orthotopic heart transplantations. We are grateful to Prof G. Baumann for support and to Drs L. Bruch and A. Kästner for helpful discussions.

Received May 30, 1995; accepted January 10, 1996.

	References

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