© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Reentrant Wave Fronts in Wiggers' Stage II Ventricular Fibrillation
Characteristics and Mechanisms of Termination and Spontaneous Regeneration
From the Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine (J.J.L., K.K., D.H., C.H., W.F., C.B., T.I., H.S.K., P.-S.C.), and the Department of Pathology (M.C.F.), Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, Calif.
Correspondence to John J. Lee, MD, Division of Cardiology, Room 5314, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90048.
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Abstract |
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Abstract The mechanisms of Wiggers' stage II ventricular fibrillation (VF) are poorly understood. Using computerized mapping techniques, we studied the patterns of activation during Wiggers' stage II VF in 13 open-chest dogs. In 7 of the 13 dogs, the right ventricular Purkinje fibers and adjacent subendocardial myocytes were ablated with Lugol solution. VF was induced electrically, and 3 to 5 seconds of data were obtained beginning
2.5 seconds after the onset of VF. Dynamic displays of the
activation patterns and isochronal maps revealed the presence of
reentrant wave fronts in 17 of 33 runs of VF in ablated ventricles and
in 12 of 45 runs of VF in intact ventricles. The incidence of reentry
was not different between the subendocardium-ablated group versus
the nonablated group (1.7±1.6 versus 1.2±1.6 rotations per
episode of
VF, P=.19). There were no differences in the core size
(25±19 versus 29±18 mm2), life span (3.4±1.1
versus
3.2±1.2 rotations), or cycle length (111±12 versus 107±8
ms) in
ablated ventricles versus intact ventricles, respectively. The core was
unstable as it meandered within the mapped area displacing the entire
reentrant wave front. In all episodes, the reentrant wave fronts were
spontaneously initiated by an interaction between two propagating wave
fronts roughly perpendicular to each other. The second wave front met
the tail of the first wave front 69±11 ms (range, 40 to 90 ms) after
its latest activation, indicating that the interaction occurred during
a vulnerable period. The reentrant wave fronts terminated spontaneously
(n=7), as the result of interference by an invading wave front
(n=19),
or meandered off the mapped region (n=3). We conclude the following:
(1) Reentrant activities with short life spans and meandering cores are
present during Wiggers' stage II VF in dogs. (2) New reentrant
wave fronts are generated when one wave front interacts with another
wave front during its vulnerable period. (3) The reentrant wave fronts
terminate spontaneously or as the result of interference. (4) Chemical
subendocardial ablation does not affect the incidence, life span, cycle
length, or core size of the reentrant wave fronts.
Key Words: Purkinje fibers • vulnerable period • core • spiral wave • sudden cardiac death
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Introduction |
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In 1930, Wiggers et al1 reported that four stages of electrically induced ventricular fibrillation (VF) were visible by cinematography. The first stage, which lasts for only a few seconds, is the undulatory or tachysystolic stage. The second stage, which lasts for 15 to 40 s, is called the convulsive incoordination stage. This stage is characterized by more frequent waves of contractions, which sweep over smaller sections of the ventricles. The third stage, lasting 2 to 3 minutes, is that of tremulous incoordination. The final stage is the stage of atonic fibrillation, with complete failure of contractility. Among these four stages of VF, Wiggers' stage II VF is clinically the most significant, because it is during this stage that therapeutic modalities, such as electric countershock, can effectively terminate VF and prevent sudden cardiac death.
By use of computerized mapping techniques, it has been demonstrated that reentrant wave fronts underlie the onset (Wiggers' stage I) of VF in intact canine ventricles.2 3 4 However, the reentrant wave fronts observed in these studies, which were initiated by the strong electrical stimuli used to induce VF, had an average life span of only 1.36 s before termination.2 Moreover, this time period correlates with a surface electrocardiogram consistent with ventricular tachycardia. The mechanisms of Wiggers' stage II VF, which correlates with VF on the electrocardiogram, remains poorly understood. One study5 was able to show the presence of a reentrant wave front 20 s after the onset of VF; however, only one episode was demonstrated, and only three cycles were analyzed before defibrillation changed the activation sequence. Other investigators6 7 used unipolar recordings to map VF. Reentrant excitation was either a rare event6 or was reported to be nonexistent.7 These observations raise the possibility that although reentry underlies the onset, or Wiggers' stage I, of electrically induced VF,2 3 4 the maintenance of Wiggers' stage II VF is due to entirely different mechanisms. We hypothesize that reentry underlies the mechanism of Wiggers' stage II VF and that technical limitations were responsible for the poor understanding of these reentrant activities. To test this hypothesis, we constructed a 512-channel computerized mapping system and a bipolar recording plaque electrode array with short interelectrode distances to record activations during VF. Because bipolar recordings are associated with narrower electrograms than are unipolar recordings, succeeding electrograms are less likely to overlap with each other, allowing for more accurate selection of activation times. We also developed methods to automatically select the times of activation and display the activation patterns dynamically on the computer screen. These methods provide better temporal resolution than the conventional isochronal activation maps, which usually cover only short periods of time.
There have been contradicting reports on the importance of the subendocardium and the Purkinje fiber network on the generation and maintenance of VF. Although we4 8 found that subendocardial ablation affected neither the vulnerability to VF nor the life span of reentrant wave fronts during Wiggers' stage I VF, other authors9 10 have suggested that ablation of the subendocardium and Purkinje fibers may decrease ventricular vulnerability. Therefore, it was of interest to determine if subendocardial and Purkinje fiber ablation affects the characteristics of the reentrant wave fronts during Wiggers' stage II VF. To test the importance of the subendocardium on the maintenance of VF, we8 developed methods to perform subendocardial ablation without subjecting the dogs to cardiopulmonary bypass. The purposes of the present study were to use computerized mapping techniques to study Wiggers' stage II VF in normal and in subendocardium-ablated canine ventricles to test the hypothesis that reentrant wave fronts are present during Wiggers' stage II VF and to determine the mechanisms by which these reentrant wave fronts terminate and regenerate. The effects of subendocardial and Purkinje fiber ablation on the core size, cycle length, life span, and incidence of the reentrant wave fronts were also studied.
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Materials and Methods |
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Surgical Preparation
The research protocol was approved by the institutional animal care and use committee of the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and followed the guidelines of the American Heart Association. Thirteen adult mongrel dogs were anesthetized with 25 to 35 mg/kg sodium pentobarbital,11 intubated, and ventilated with room air by a respirator (Harvard Apparatus). An arterial line was inserted into the right femoral artery to continuously monitor systemic blood pressure. Blood was drawn to determine the pH, PO2, PCO2, base excess, and bicarbonate concentrations. Normal metabolic status was maintained throughout the study by correcting any abnormal values. A venous line was inserted into the femoral vein to infuse saline and to give supplemental doses of pentobarbital. Rectal temperature was monitored and maintained at 36°C to 37°C by heating the table with warm circulating water. The chest was opened through a medial sternotomy, and the heart was suspended in a pericardial cradle.
Recording Electrodes
The recording plaque electrode array was
constructed
with stainless steel wires with a diameter of 0.4 mm. These wires were
selected because they were durable, therefore decreasing the likelihood
of malfunction during experiments. The wires were fully insulated
except at the tips, which served as the tissue contact points. The
interelectrode distance was 1.6 mm, and the interpolar distance was 0.5
mm, measured from center to center. The bipolar axes of all the bipolar
pairs were aligned with the rows of the electrodes. However, because
the electrode array was handmade, the alignments may not have been
perfect. During the experiments, the wires were hung at the front end,
which was usually 20 to 30 cm higher than the heart surface. In
addition, an umbilical tape was used to hang the redundant wires in the
air so that the full weight of the electrode array was not resting on
the heart. In 6 dogs, mapping studies were performed with a plaque of
317 bipolar electrodes containing 21 columns. The same electrode array
was later expanded to include 509 bipolar electrodes and was used in
the remaining 7 dogs. An additional three channels of recording
electrodes were used to register surface
electrocardiograms, which were constantly monitored
throughout the study.
The recording electrodes were connected to a computerized mapping system (EMAP, Uniservices).12 The electrograms were filtered with a high-pass filter of 0.5 Hz and were acquired at 1000 samples per second. The mapping system has a fixed gain of 10. The sample-and-hold technique was performed sequentially. For 1-kHz sampling rate, the skew between two consecutive channels was 2 µs. The maximal skew (skew between channels 1 and 512) was 1 ms and was not corrected. The analog-to-digital conversions were calibrated with 18-bit resolution. True 16-bit conversions were achieved. The dynamic range of the analog-to-digital convertor was between -4.5 and +4.5 V, or a total of 9 V. Dividing 9 V by 65 536 and then by the gain of 10 resulted in an input resolution of the system of 13.7 µV.
Protocol 1: Computerized Mapping of Intact Ventricles
Five
dogs were used in this protocol. A 509-channel
recording electrode array was sutured on the epicardial surface
of the right ventricular anterior wall, 1 cm below the
pulmonary conus. A bipolar pacing electrode was added to the
right edge of the recording electrode array to deliver baseline
pacing with 5-ms pulse widths at twice diastolic threshold
current (Fig 1A
). Another pair of stimulation electrodes
was added to the area between electrodes 156 and 178 and between
electrodes 178 and 158 to deliver the premature stimulus
(S2).2 After eight S1 stimuli at a
cycle length of 300 ms, a strong S2 stimulus with an
average strength of 73±10 mA was delivered to induce VF. The first
tested S1-S2 interval was shorter than the
effective refractory period of the ventricles, usually <130 ms. If VF
was not induced, the S1-S2 interval was
increased in 10-ms increments to scan the vulnerable period of the
ventricles until VF was induced. If VF was induced, the same
S1-S2 interval was used to induce two more VF
episodes in that dog so that a total of three episodes of VF were
analyzed in each dog.
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Protocol 2: Computerized Mapping of Ventricles After Chemical
Subendocardial Ablation
Six dogs were used in this protocol. The right
ventricular subendocardium was ablated with Lugol solution
according to methods previously reported in detail.8
Briefly, umbilical tapes were threaded around the venae cavae and the
pulmonary artery in preparation for inflow and outflow
occlusion. A catheter was inserted via the right atrial appendage into
the right ventricular cavity. The umbilical tapes around
the venae cavae and the pulmonary artery were tightened, and
the right ventricular cavity was emptied by syringe. Lugol
solution (20 to 30 mL) was injected into the right
ventricular chamber and maintained for 10 to 20 s. Right
bundle branch block always occurred immediately after the injection of
the Lugol solution. Warm normal saline was then used to flush the same
chamber multiple times to remove the Lugol solution. The occlusions
were then released, and the dog was allowed to recover for 30 minutes,
or until the blood pressure and the heart rate returned to normal. The
total duration of the inflow and the outflow occlusions was 2
minutes.
A 317-channel recording electrode array was then sutured on
the
epicardial surface of the right ventricular anterior wall,
1 cm below the pulmonary conus. Eight pacing wires, 3 mm apart,
were sutured to the right edge of the recording plaque.
Baseline (S1) unipolar cathodal pacing using a 10-mA 5-ms
stimulus was delivered simultaneously from these pacing
electrodes, with the chest wall used as the anode, to create planar
activation wave fronts (Fig 1B
).3 4 To
deliver the strong
premature stimulus (S2), a patch electrode measuring 3.16
by 0.85 cm was sutured to the upper edge of the plaque. After eight
S1 stimuli at a cycle length of 300 ms, a second channel of
the programmable stimulator was used to deliver a premature stimulus to
a high-voltage stimulator (HVS-02, Ventritex). The S2 was used as
an external
signal to trigger the immediate delivery from the HVS-02 of a 6-ms 50-V
truncated exponential shock to the patch electrode on the edge of the
plaque electrode array to induce VF.3 4
Protocol 3: Computerized Mapping of Ventricles Before and After
Subendocardial Ablation
Because different electrode arrays were used
in the first two
protocols, the ability to discern and quantify reentrant wave fronts
may be affected; thus, comparing the incidence of reentry between the
first two groups may not be accurate. Therefore, two additional dogs
were studied. Also, since it is possible that the transient global
ischemia inflicted during the ablation procedure may account
for any differences seen, one of the two dogs was mapped under control
conditions and then again after a sham "ablation" procedure. In
each dog, the same 509-channel electrode array was sutured on the right
ventricular outflow tract and free wall. Both rectal
temperature and epicardial temperature were monitored during the study.
In both of these dogs, the temperature differences between these two
sites was <1°C. This finding is consistent with those
previously reported using the same model.8
VF was induced by rapid ventricular pacing from the left ventricular apex with a cycle length of 100 ms and a duration of 3 to 5 s. Data acquisition started 3 s after the onset of VF for a total of 8 s. After a total of 15 fibrillation/defibrillation episodes, the dogs were prepared for subendocardial ablation as described in protocol 2. In one dog, the subendocardium was ablated with Lugol solution. In the second dog, the same procedure was followed, but normal saline was used instead of the Lugol solution. After the procedure, 15 episodes of VF were mapped in each dog. The dogs were then euthanized, and the mapped tissues were removed for histological examination.
For all three protocols, two patch defibrillation electrodes with an active surface area of 13.5 cm2 (CPI) were sutured to the right and the left ventricular epicardia, distant from the recording electrode array, to deliver rescue shocks within 10 s after the induction of VF. A 4-minute interval was allowed to lapse between each fibrillation/defibrillation episode.
Data Analysis
Selection of Activations
The
purpose of the present study was to determine the
patterns of activation during Wiggers' stage II VF; therefore, 3 to 5
s of data were analyzed beginning 2.5 s after the onset of VF
in protocols 1 and 2, and the initial 4 s of data of each episode were
analyzed beginning 3 s after the onset of VF for protocol
3. We began data analysis 2.5 to 3 s after S2
because the reentrant wave fronts initiated by the S2 might
persist for 0.15 to 2.75 s.2 At 2.5 to 3 s after
S2, we hoped that all reentrant wave fronts directly
initiated by the S2 would have died out and that all
observed reentry was spontaneously generated during VF.
The time of
activation was taken as the time of the fastest slope
(dV/dt) of each electrogram (Fig
2).2 13 14 15
The maximal dV/dt in the window of data analysis was first
determined by the computer. The investigators then had the option to
choose a threshold dV/dt value (a percentage of the maximal dV/dt) and
a threshold interval (in milliseconds). In the example shown in Fig
2,
the threshold values were 20% and 50 ms, respectively. The computer
selected a time as the time of local activation if the dV/dt at that
time exceeded the threshold value and if the interval between that time
and the time of the previous activation exceeded the threshold
interval. Because each channel has a different signal-to-noise
ratio, the threshold values selected varied from channel to channel at
the investigator's discretion. The vertical lines in Fig
2B indicate
the times, in milliseconds, of selected activations, with the induction
of VF by S2 as time 0.
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The computers were not 100% specific
and sensitive in selecting
activations, as demonstrated in Fig 2B. It is an efficient
method to
help investigators to detect reentrant wave fronts in VF. However,
because of the presence of the noise and artifacts, this method is not
suitable for quantitative analysis of the initiation and
termination events of the reentrant wave fronts. Therefore, manual
editing was always performed for each activation for each episode of
VF. The arrows in Fig 2B point to deflections that will be
manually
selected as activations. If two deflections (double potentials) were
observed, both deflections were selected as activations regardless of
the duration of the isoelectric interval (Fig 2B, thick arrow).
Therefore, some activations selected may have been electrotonic in
origin and did not represent true local activations. The
advantage of selecting all deflections as activations is that the
investigators did not have to apply artificial criteria to reject or to
accept a deflection as a local activation. Dynamic displays of the
activation patterns were then visualized on a computer screen in which
each electrode site was illuminated when an activation was
registered.
The disadvantage of the above method is that it is
difficult to
accurately convey to a reader the dynamic activation patterns with a
limited number of still-frame figures. Therefore, for the purposes
of illustration, it was necessary to also construct conventional
isochronal activation maps.2 5 The criteria for
selecting local activations for conventional isochronal map
generation have been reported elsewhere.4 16
Briefly, for the biphasic and the multiphasic waveforms, the maximal
slope of the activation complex was selected by the computer to be the
time of activation, and only one activation time was assigned to the
entire complex if no isoelectric period was present within the
complex. If the activation complexes were monophasic with a single
maximum or minimum, the time of activation was assigned to be at the
peak of the maximal deflection.13 Only one activation was
selected in the channel with multiple activations to represent
the time of these multiple complexes. The activation that we selected
was the one that was the largest and had the steepest slope among all
the neighboring activations. This activation time was then used to
match the activations on the other channels, thus generating the
isochronal map. For channel 368, shown in Fig 2B, the
deflection
marked by the vertical line 6519 had a steeper slope than the
deflection marked by the thick arrow. Therefore, the time 6519 was
selected to match the activation time 6482 on channel 369 for the
purpose of generating isochronal maps. The isochronal maps were
then compared with the dynamic display to ensure that the
isochronal maps adequately represented the activation
patterns shown in the dynamic display.
Dynamic Display
After manual editing of the activation times, a dynamic
display of the activation patterns of each episode of VF was visualized
on a computer screen in which each electrode site is
represented by a dot. For each activation registered, a
software program directs the corresponding dot on the computer monitor
to illuminate. The dot initially illuminates red, then yellow, followed
by green, light blue, and finally dark blue. The changing color of
each dot acts as an aid in the visual identification of the
direction of wave front propagation, particularly when the dynamic
display is being observed in fast motion. The total duration of the
illumination of one dot by one activation time was manually preset at
50 ms. Therefore, each color persisted for 10 ms. The 50-ms duration
was selected because a previous study4 showed that the
refractory period of ventricular cells during VF ranged
from 48 to 77 ms. Therefore, the 50-ms illumination period approximates
the refractory period of the propagating wave front. This period,
however, can be set at any value by the investigator. Occasionally, the
red color could appear twice within 50 ms of each other on the same
channel. This phenomenon was usually due to recording of double
potentials on the same channel, which occurred as a result of wave
front collision or when the channel was near the core of reentry. The
speed of the dynamic display can also be selected by the investigators,
usually at 1/15th of the speed as it actually occurred in vivo. The
investigator can also advance the dynamic display at fixed time
intervals to observe the activation sequence one frame at a time.
A reentrant wave front was defined as a wave front that completed a circular pathway and reentered the area of origin. It was characterized by the juxtaposition of early and late sites on the isochronal map. However, because the core of reentrant wave fronts meandered from beat to beat, the reentrant wave front may not return to the exact same point from which it originated. All other VF wave fronts were classified as either wave fronts that originated from outside the mapped area or as wave fronts that originated from within the mapped area.5 The former wave fronts were characterized by an early site at the edges of the mapped tissue, followed by propagation toward the center. The latter wave fronts had early sites within the mapped region, followed by propagation toward the periphery.
Determining the Core of Reentry
The approximate location of
the core of the reentrant wave
fronts was first identified by dynamic display. Fig 3
illustrates the method used to determine the core area. The red color
indicates the electrodes that were activated within the
previous 10 ms. Panels A through I are selected frames from the dynamic
display of the activation patterns during VF. The frames are separated
by variable intervals. The time, in milliseconds, of each frame is
shown in parentheses above the panels; the beginning of data
acquisition was time 0. The reentrant wave front rotates in a clockwise
direction. Each electrode that was nearest to the core and on the
leading edge of the wave front was marked. The reentry was then
advanced in 5-ms intervals, and the leading edge of the reentrant wave
front was marked each time when an appropriate point showed up. These
points may show up as close as 5 ms apart, as shown in panels B and C.
However, sometimes >20 ms passed without a red dot showing near the
core. These marked electrodes were then connected by lines as shown.
Because the core in this example meandered rightward, the loop was not
closed in panel D at the same point it began in panel A. The size of
the core was estimated from the lines that encircled an area (panel D).
This loop represents the perimeter of the core of the first
reentrant cycle. Panels E through I show the core identified for the
second reentrant cycle. The myocardial fiber orientation is displayed
by the arrow at the bottom of the figure. Since the electrical
activations were analyzed before any knowledge about the
location of the core, this was a blinded method of determining the
perimeter. Once the perimeter of the core was identified, the computer
counted the number of electrodes encircled by this perimeter. Because
the interelectrode distance was 1.6 mm, each electrode
represents an area of (1.6 mm)2, or 2.56
mm2. The core size was then calculated by the product
of 2.56 mm2 and the number of electrodes encircled.
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Histopathological Examination
At the conclusion of the
experiments, the dogs were
euthanized by an overdose of pentobarbital. The electrode array was
removed, and the underlying tissue was excised from the rest of the
heart and fixed in 10% buffered formalin solution. A horizontal
section was obtained 1 mm from the epicardium to determine the
presence, if any, of an anatomic barrier. Transmural sections were also
taken to evaluate the effect of Lugol solution on the subendocardial
tissue. All tissue samples were processed routinely and embedded in
paraffin. Five-micron-thick sections were cut and stained with
hematoxylin and eosin for light microscopic evaluation.
Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were performed
using
SYSTAT.17 Results are expressed as the mean±SD.
Student's t tests were used to compare the mean cycle
lengths, life spans, core sizes, and incidences of reentry of the
reentrant wave fronts before and after ablation of the subendocardium
and the Purkinje fibers. The null hypothesis was rejected at a value of
P
.05.
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Results |
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The dogs weighed 24.5±3.8 kg in protocol 1, 22.1±1.0 kg in protocol 2, and 23.6±4.8 kg in protocol 3.
Activation Patterns During Baseline Pacing
Fig
1A shows the patterns of activation after an
S1 stimulus (black arrow) in an intact ventricle. Because
subendocardial Purkinje fibers were intact, tissue located distant from
the S1 site was activated by transmural wave front
propagation, as evidenced by the presence of epicardial breakthrough
sites with activation times earlier than that of the surrounding tissue
(white arrows). Similar findings have been reported by other
investigators.15 18 Fig 1B shows the
pattern of activation
after an S1 stimulus in an ablated ventricle. The wave
front is planar because the pacing stimulus was delivered
simultaneously by eight pacing wires located 3 mm apart along the right edge
of the electrode
plaque (left edge of panel). The tissue distant from the S1
site did not have recording sites that activated
earlier than the surrounding electrodes. This observation is compatible
with successful subendocardial ablation.8 There was no
evidence of conduction block in the mapped region during S1
pacing in either group of dogs.
Reentrant Wave Fronts in Wiggers' Stage II VF in Intact
Ventricles
A total of 45 episodes of VF were analyzed.
Among them, 15 episodes were from
protocol 1, and 15 episodes were from each of the two dogs from
protocol 3 before subendocardial ablation. In all episodes, the reentry
initially induced by the S2 or rapid
ventricular pacing terminated because no reentry was
observed at the beginning of our data analysis window. Among
the 45 runs of VF mapped in dogs with intact ventricles, 12 episodes of
reentrant wave fronts were observed in the mapped region. In 5
episodes, the reentry was clockwise, and in 7 episodes, it was
counterclockwise. The mean number of rotations (life span) was
3.2±1.2. The mean cycle length was 107±8 ms. Fig
4
shows an example of a reentrant wave front during Wiggers' stage II
VF. A clockwise reentrant wave front was seen at the right edge of the
figure, corresponding to the dog's left side, and lasted three cycles.
The two panels in Fig 4 show different isochronal line
locations
near the core, indicating that the core meanders. Fig 5
shows the actual activations recorded during reentrant excitation.
The electrogram recorded on channel 313 in the first cycle (marked
time 0) was upright and in the next cycle (marked time 94 ms) was
downward. These changes indicate that the wave front might have
traveled in different directions in these two consecutive cycles. This
could be explained by the meandering nature of the core, which was on
one side of electrode 313 in the first cycle and then on the other side
of the electrode in the subsequent cycle.
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Reentrant Wave Fronts in Wiggers' Stage II VF in Ablated
Ventricles
A total of 33 episodes of VF were mapped. Among them, 18
episodes
were from protocol 2, and 15 episodes were from protocol 3. In all
episodes, the reentry immediately induced by the S2
terminated because no reentry was observed at the beginning of the data
analysis window. In 17 of 33 episodes of VF, reentrant wave
fronts were observed in the mapped region. In 7 episodes, the reentry
was clockwise, and, in 10 episodes, it was counterclockwise. The mean
number of rotations (life span) before termination was 3.4±1.1
(P=.83 when compared with the group with intact ventricles).
The mean cycle length was 111±12 ms (P=.12).
Fig
6 shows consecutive isochronal maps of one
reentrant wave front. The wave front rotated in the counterclockwise
direction and lasted four cycles. Fig 7 shows
electrograms along the circular pathway of the reentrant wave front
shown in Fig 6. The arrows point to the direction of wave front
propagation of the four reentrant cycles.
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Incidence of Reentry
The incidence of reentry, defined as the
mean number of rotations
per episode (4 s) of VF analyzed, was 1.2±1.6 under baseline
conditions and 1.7±1.6 after chemical ablation (P=.19).
There was also no difference in the incidence of reentry between
baseline conditions and after the sham ablation procedure with normal
saline (0.5±1.1 versus 0.7±1.2, P=.55).
Core Size
In Fig 3, note that the core has its
long axis parallel to the
fiber orientation, a phenomenon that was observed in 19 episodes of
reentry. In the remaining 10 episodes, the shape of the core did not
manifest an apparent long axis. The mean core size of reentry was
29±18 mm2 in intact ventricles and 25±19
mm2
in ablated ventricles (P=.47).
The Core Meanders
To demonstrate that the core meanders, we
studied the path of the
core by connecting the inner electrodes on the leading edge of
consecutive reentrant excitations. Fig 8A shows the path
of the leading inner point of a reentrant wave front for three
consecutive reentrant excitations. The numbers indicate the sequences
of activations. This figure demonstrates that the core of reentry is
not stationary and fixed but instead meanders from one cycle to the
next. This phenomenon was observed in each episode of reentry. Fig
8B
shows electrograms in or near the core. The electrograms from top to
bottom correspond to the white dots from left to right, respectively,
in Fig 8A. Note that electrograms 138 to 141 were always
outside of the
core, hence registering large and single bipolar electrograms.
Electrodes 142 and 143 were initially inside the core and
thus registered low-amplitude slowly rising bipolar electrograms.
However, the core meandered toward the dog's left side (right edge of
panel) in the third reentrant excitation. As a result, electrodes 142
and 143 were no longer within the core and thus registered large and
single bipolar electrograms (arrows). These findings demonstrate that
at a given electrode site, the core meanders in and out over short
periods of time.
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Spontaneous Initiation of Reentrant Wave Fronts
Analysis of
the dynamic display of the activation patterns
during the initiation or generation of new reentrant wave
fronts revealed a consistent pattern. In each case, a reentrant
wave front was initiated by a wave front crossing roughly perpendicular
to the tail of another wave front. Fig 9 shows selected
frames from a dynamic display that illustrates this phenomenon. Panel A
shows a wave front that propagates from the top to the bottom (filled
arrow). The unfilled arrow points to a second wave front, which is
propagating from the left edge of the mapped tissue rightward. The
perpendicular intersection of these two wave fronts created a wave
break (asterisk, panel B), followed by reentry (panels C through F).
Fig 10 shows the actual activations registered. The
lower four electrodes registered the wave front at the bottom of Fig
9A. Electrodes 9, 34, 80, and 102 registered the wave front at
the top
of Fig 9A. The activations recorded in electrode 102 show that
the
top wave front propagated to this area 50 ms after the lower wave front
activated the same area. The interval between these two
deflections (50 ms) was the "intersection interval." Fig
10 also
shows that after the first activation, the activation sequences have
changed. For example, the sequence of activation was 141-181-220 in the
first activation. This sequence was changed to 220-181-141 in the third
activation. These changes are compatible with the creation of a
reentrant wave front shown in Fig 9B through 9F.
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To
determine whether or not the intersection interval is randomly
distributed throughout the VF cycle, we plotted the intersection
intervals, which are shown in Fig 11. Twenty-three
episodes (9 in intact ventricles and 14 in ablated ventricles) were
included. Six episodes could not be determined because the initiation
sequences occurred near the edge of the plaque. This intersection
interval did not randomly distribute throughout the VF cycle length.
Rather, there was a clustering of the interval between 40 and 90 ms,
with a mean of 69±11 ms. This clustering indicates that a vulnerable
period is present in the VF wave front. Interaction of two wave
fronts during this vulnerable period results in the initiation of
reentrant excitation.
|
Termination of Reentrant Wave Fronts
Analysis of the dynamic
display data revealed that in 19
episodes, the reentrant wave fronts terminated as the result of
interference by an invading wave front, and in 7 episodes, it
terminated spontaneously. In 3 episodes, the mode of termination is
unknown because the reentrant wave front meandered off the mapped
region before it terminated. These findings are similar to those found
for the reentrant wave fronts in Wiggers' stage I VF.4
Both modes of termination were observed in intact and ablated
ventricles.
Fig 12 is an example of spontaneous
termination. It
shows selected frames from a dynamic display of a reentrant wave front.
The arrows are immediately in front of the leading edge of the wave
front and point in the direction of propagation. Panels A through H
demonstrate clockwise reentry. Panels I and J show the wave front
terminating spontaneously. This termination is quickly followed (panels
K and L) by a wave front from outside the mapped area propagating
across the mapped region.
|
Fig 13 is an example of
reentry terminated by
interference. It shows selected frames from the dynamic display. Panels
A through C show clockwise reentry. The closed arrows are immediately
in front of the wave front and point in the direction of propagation.
Panels B and C show another wave front (open arrows) propagating from
the top of the mapped region downward. In Panel D, this wave front
invades the reentrant wave front, terminating the reentry. Panels E and
F show that reentrant activity has ceased.
|
Fig 14 shows
the actual activations shown in Fig 13.
Two wave fronts are seen. The lower five channels registered the
activations of the reentrant excitation. The upper three channels
registered outside interference. Initially, both wave fronts arrive at
channel 229 almost simultaneously. The upper wave front
(channels 124, 164, and 226) was not able to preexcite the cells near
channel 229, allowing reentry to continue. However, the seventh
activation of the upper wave front arrived early and preexcited
channels 229 (arrow a) and 293 (arrow b), resulting in abrupt
termination of reentry. The subsequent activations are much more
synchronized, indicating the absence of reentry. These findings
indicate that an excitable gap is present in the reentrant wave
fronts during Wiggers' stage II VF and that the presence of this
excitable gap contributes to the termination of reentry.
|
Nonreentrant Wave Fronts
Because reentrant excitation was an
uncommon occurrence, most wave
fronts on the epicardium did not appear to participate in reentry. By
and large these nonreentrant wave fronts were observed to enter the
mapped region from outside the mapped area (Fig 15A).
In both intact and subendocardium-ablated
ventricular epicardium, the wave fronts arrived at the
mapped region from all directions. There was no apparent preference of
the wave fronts to travel either along or across the fiber orientation.
A significant number of wave fronts had the earliest activation site
within the mapped region, most likely representing the
epicardial breakthrough of transmural activation (Fig 15B).
The
incidence of wave fronts with early sites within the mapped area was
0.63±0.19 times per second of data analyzed per area of
epicardium mapped in intact ventricles. The incidence of wave fronts
originating within the mapped area during VF was significantly lower in
ablated ventricles (0.25±0.17 times per second per square centimeter,
P=.001).
|
Histopathological Findings
No anatomic barriers were present
in any of the tissue
specimens. In transmural sections of subendocardium-ablated
ventricles, the Purkinje fibers and the adjacent subendocardial
contractile myofibers were necrotic. The layer of necrotic
subendocardial myocardial cells approximated a zone of up to six or
seven myocardial cells, or roughly a depth of 0.5 mm (Fig 16).
These histological findings are
essentially the same as those reported
previously.8
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResults Discussion References |
|---|
Reentrant Wave Fronts in Wiggers' Stage II VF
Using computerized mapping techniques, we tested the hypothesis that reentrant wave fronts are present during Wiggers' stage II VF. The results of the present study demonstrate the presence of reentrant wave fronts during stage II VF in both intact and ablated canine ventricles. Baseline pacing showed no evidence of conduction block in the areas studied, and histological examination revealed no evidence of anatomic barriers. Therefore, the reentrant wave fronts observed in the present study are instances of functional reentry. These functional reentrant wave fronts, or rotors,19 provide the constant source of activation required to maintain VF.
Mechanism of Spontaneous Regeneration of Reentrant Wave
Fronts
The present study also showed that these reentrant wave fronts
had a very limited life span, while VF persisted. Therefore, it was
important to determine how the reentrant wave fronts spontaneously
regenerate during the course of VF. We demonstrated that during stage
II VF, new reentrant wave fronts are spontaneously initiated by a wave
front crossing roughly perpendicularly to the tail of a preceding wave
front. It appears that both the relative direction and the relative
timing of the two intersecting wave fronts are important in the
initiation of reentry. The direction is important because all
initiating events were associated with two wave fronts that were
roughly perpendicular to each other. The timing is important because
the two wave fronts must intersect at a critical interval. Fig
17 schematically illustrates this concept. Panel A
shows two wave fronts intersecting at roughly a 90° angle to each
other. Panel B shows that the wave break occurs when the lower part of
the wave front meets refractory tissue, while the upper part of the
same wave front continues to propagate in its original direction. Panel
C shows that reentry occurs when the tissue that was refractory in
panel B is repolarized. These findings, that a wave break sets the
stage for the induction of reentry, are consistent with those
shown by Pertsov et al,20 who used in vitro preparations.
Because the wave break occurred only
when the intersection interval was within a narrow range of 40 to 90
ms, we propose that a vulnerable period is present in the wave
front, during which an electrical stimulus provided by a second wave
front, invading at a right angle, can induce reentry.
|
The vulnerable period estimated in the present study was determined by analyzing the wave break induced by the interaction of two propagating wave fronts. However, previous studies of the vulnerable period during regular rhythm were usually performed with premature electrical stimulations.21 22 23 24 25 Future studies using a timed premature stimulus of known current strength will be helpful in more accurately determining the vulnerable period and current strength that are needed to induce reentrant wave fronts during VF.
Strength of the Stimulus and Induction of Reentry
It has been
demonstrated that a vulnerable period is present
during sinus or paced rhythm, during which an electrical stimulus can
induce functional reentry and
VF.2 3 21 23 Computer
simulation studies20 26 and experiments using in
vitro
preparations20 have also shown that an electrical stimulus
can induce functional reentry. A major difference between the in vivo
and the in vitro experiments was the strength of the stimulus required
to induce reentry. Whereas the electrical stimulus used to induce
reentry in thin in vitro preparations was of a low strength (two to
five times threshold),20 the induction of reentry in the
intact ventricles requires a very high current strength, often
exceeding 100 times the pacing threshold.24 27 The
inability of a small electrical stimulus to induce reentry in vivo, in
contrast to in vitro, raises doubts about the relevance of the computer
simulation studies19 and the in vitro
studies20 to the induction of reentry in intact hearts.
Therefore, the result of the present study, which indicates that
reentry during Wiggers' stage II VF in vivo can be initiated by a
stimulus no stronger than that provided by a propagating wave front, is
significant. Because many wave fronts are present at any given time
during VF, it is highly likely for one wave front to interact during
its vulnerable phase with another wave front at a right angle, thereby
inducing reentry.
We do not know why a relatively small electrical stimulus provided by the propagating wave front could induce reentry during VF but not during sinus or paced rhythm. One possible explanation is that the action potential duration during VF is much shorter than that during sinus rhythm.28 Because a shortening of the action potential duration promotes reentry in vitro,29 the same mechanism may facilitate the induction of reentry during Wiggers' stage II VF.
Mechanisms of Termination of Reentrant Wave Fronts
The
present study found that the termination of reentrant wave
fronts occurred either spontaneously or as the result of invasion of
the reentrant circuit by an outside wave front. These findings are
similar to those found for Wiggers' stage I
VF.2 4 These
findings indicate that an excitable gap is present in the reentrant
wave fronts during Wiggers' stage II VF and that the presence of this
excitable gap contributes to the termination of reentry. The multiple
modes of termination may explain, in part, why the reentrant wave
fronts have notably short life spans during Wiggers' stage II VF.
Effect of Subendocardial Ablation
Although
we4 8 found that subendocardial ablation
affected neither the vulnerability to VF nor the life span of reentrant
wave fronts during Wiggers' stage I VF, other
authors9 10 have suggested that ablation
of the subendocardium and Purkinje fibers may decrease
ventricular vulnerability. Therefore, it was of interest to
determine if subendocardial and Purkinje fiber ablation affects the
incidence or characteristics of the reentrant wave fronts during
Wiggers' stage II VF. The findings of the present study, however,
do not support this hypothesis. Our results showed no significant
change in the incidence, life span, cycle length, or the mean core size
of the reentrant wave fronts after subendocardial ablation. These data
indicate that the generation and the maintenance of reentry do
not depend on an intact subendocardium.
Spiral Waves
Spiral waves of excitation have been observed in
disparate dynamic
systems, including physical,30 chemical,31
and biological32 33 systems. By assuming that the
heart
behaves like a generic nonlinear excitable medium, theoretical
biologists have predicted spiral waves (scroll waves in three
dimensions) of excitation as the mechanism of functional reentry during
VF in the heart.34 In vitro experimental mapping studies
using normal two-dimensional isolated canine and sheep epicardial
muscle20 35 and diseased human ventricular
tissue29 have revealed that reentrant spiral waves of
excitation can be induced by critically timed premature stimuli.
In the
present study, we demonstrated that many of the
characteristics of reentrant activities during Wiggers' stage II VF
dovetail with the theory of spiral waves. The generation of new
reentrant wave fronts by critically timed wave fronts that intersect at
roughly right angles to each other is compatible with the theory of
spiral waves.20 26 The termination of the reentrant
wave
fronts by invading wave fronts demonstrated in the present study
provides evidence for the presence of an excitable gap, which is also
consistent with spiral wave theory.20 36
Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the cores of the reentrant wave
fronts meander. A meandering core is considered a characteristic
feature of rotors37 whose two-dimensional
manifestation are spiral waves. Although these features are
consistent with spiral wave theory, the reentrant wave fronts
shown in Figs 4 and 6 do not demonstrate wave
fronts spiraling outward
from a central core. Rather, they appear to travel around a line of
block, not inconsistent with the leading circle
morphology first reported by Allessie et al.38 The
mechanism by which reentrant wave fronts display a true spiral
morphology in in vitro ventricular tissue
preparation20 35 but not during VF in intact
ventricles is
unknown. This discrepancy leaves open the question about the
fundamental nature of reentry in Wiggers' stage II VF.
Limitations of the Study
There are some important limitations
of the present study.
Because transmural or three-dimensional patterns of activation were
not mapped, the incidence of reentrant wave fronts reported in the
present study is valid only for the right ventricular
epicardium. The incidence of reentry may be different if transmural
mapping is performed or if the left ventricle is mapped. Indeed, it is
likely that the incidence of reentry is underestimated because
transmural activation patterns were not mapped. For example, some of
the nonreentrant wave fronts observed on the epicardium could be part
of a transmural reentrant circuit.
The demonstration of reentrant activities does not necessarily invalidate the multiple wavelet hypothesis of fibrillation.39 Although the reentrant activities may serve as the source of activation during VF, the generation of these reentrant wave fronts depends on the critical interaction of the wavelets. Therefore, it is reasonable to postulate that both reentrant wave fronts and the presence of multiple wavelets are important in the maintenance of Wiggers' stage II VF.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrates that functionally
defined
reentrant wave fronts are present during Wiggers' stage II VF and
that these rotors, which have short life spans and have meandering
cores, may provide the constant source of activation that maintains VF.
It also demonstrates that the spontaneous initiation of these reentrant
wave fronts depends on the critical interaction between two wave fronts
and that their termination occurs either spontaneously or as the result
of interference. Finally, the present study demonstrates that
subendocardial and Purkinje fiber ablation does not affect the
incidence, life span, cycle length, or the core size of the reentrant
wave fronts.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This study was performed during the tenure of an ACC/Merck Fellowship (Dr Hwang) and an AHA/Wyeth-Ayerst Established Investigatorship Award (Dr Chen) and was supported in part by a Specialized Center of Research (SCOR) Grant for Sudden Death (HL-52319) and a FIRST Award (HL-50259) from the National Institutes of Health, by an American Heart Association National Center Grant-in-Aid (92009820), by the Electrocardiographic Heartbeat Organization, and by the Ralph M. Parsons Foundation. The authors wish to thank Drs James S. Forrester and Prediman K. Shah for their support, Avile McCullen and Meiling Yuan for technical assistance, and Elaine Lebowitz for secretarial assistance.
Received May 22, 1995; accepted December 18, 1995.
|
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M.-H. Lee, Z. Qu, G. A. Fishbein, S. T. Lamp, E. H. Chang, T. Ohara, O. Voroshilovsky, J. R. Kil, A. R. Hamzei, N. C. Wang, et al. Patterns of wave break during ventricular fibrillation in isolated swine right ventricle Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, July 1, 2001; 281(1): H253 - H265. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M.-H. Lee, S.-F. Lin, T. Ohara, C. Omichi, Y. Okuyama, E. Chudin, A. Garfinkel, J. N. Weiss, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Effects of diacetyl monoxime and cytochalasin D on ventricular fibrillation in swine right ventricles Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, June 1, 2001; 280(6): H2689 - H2696. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Xie, Z. Qu, A. Garfinkel, and J. N. Weiss Effects of simulated ischemia on spiral wave stability Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, April 1, 2001; 280(4): H1667 - H1673. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Ohara, K. Ohara, J.-M. Cao, M.-H. Lee, M. C. Fishbein, W. J. Mandel, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Increased Wave Break During Ventricular Fibrillation in the Epicardial Border Zone of Hearts With Healed Myocardial Infarction Circulation, March 13, 2001; 103(10): 1465 - 1472. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Huang, J. M. Rogers, C. R. Killingsworth, G. P. Walcott, B. H. KenKnight, W. M. Smith, and R. E. Ideker Improvement of Defibrillation Efficacy and Quantification of Activation Patterns During Ventricular Fibrillation in a Canine Heart Failure Model Circulation, March 13, 2001; 103(10): 1473 - 1478. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T.-J. Wu, J. J. C. Ong, C.-M. Chang, R. N. Doshi, M. Yashima, H.-L. A. Huang, M. C. Fishbein, C.-T. Ting, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Pulmonary Veins and Ligament of Marshall as Sources of Rapid Activations in a Canine Model of Sustained Atrial Fibrillation Circulation, February 27, 2001; 103(8): 1157 - 1163. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. N. Weiss, P.-S. Chen, Z. Qu, H. S. Karagueuzian, and A. Garfinkel Ventricular Fibrillation : How Do We Stop the Waves From Breaking? Circ. Res., December 8, 2000; 87(12): 1103 - 1107. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Valderrabano, Y.-H. Kim, M. Yashima, T.-J. Wu, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Obstacle-induced transition from ventricular fibrillation to tachycardia in isolated swine right ventricles: Insights into the transition dynamics and implications for the critical mass J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., November 15, 2000; 36(6): 2000 - 2008. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. L. Pierpont, S. S. Chugh, J. A. Hauck, and C. C. Gornick Endocardial activation during ventricular fibrillation in normal and failing canine hearts Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2000; 279(4): H1737 - H1747. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Rogers and R. E. Ideker Fibrillating Myocardium : Rabbit Warren or Beehive? Circ. Res., March 3, 2000; 86(4): 369 - 370. [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. Banville, R. A. Gray, R. E. Ideker, and W. M. Smith Shock-Induced Figure<$DOWNLINK>-of-Eight Reentry in the Isolated Rabbit Heart Circ. Res., October 15, 1999; 85(8): 742 - 752. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y.-H. Kim, F. Xie, M. Yashima, T.-J. Wu, M. Valderrabano, M.-H. Lee, T. Ohara, O. Voroshilovsky, R. N. Doshi, M. C. Fishbein, et al. Role of Papillary Muscle in the Generation and Maintenance of Reentry During Ventricular Tachycardia and Fibrillation in Isolated Swine Right Ventricle Circulation, September 28, 1999; 100(13): 1450 - 1459. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. N. Doshi, T.-J. Wu, M. Yashima, Y.-H. Kim, J. J. C. Ong, J.-M. Cao, C. Hwang, P. Yashar, M. C. Fishbein, H. S. Karagueuzian, et al. Relation Between Ligament of Marshall and Adrenergic Atrial Tachyarrhythmia Circulation, August 24, 1999; 100(8): 876 - 883. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y.-H. Kim, M. Yashima, T.-J. Wu, R. Doshi, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Mechanism of Procainamide-Induced Prevention of Spontaneous Wave Break During Ventricular Fibrillation : Insight Into the Maintenance of Fibrillation Wave Fronts Circulation, August 10, 1999; 100(6): 666 - 674. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-M. Cao, Z. Qu, Y.-H. Kim, T.-J. Wu, A. Garfinkel, J. N. Weiss, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity in the Induction of Ventricular Fibrillation by Rapid Pacing : Importance of Cardiac Restitution Properties Circ. Res., June 11, 1999; 84(11): 1318 - 1331. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Rogers, J. Huang, W. M. Smith, and R. E. Ideker Incidence, Evolution, and Spatial Distribution of Functional Reentry During Ventricular Fibrillation in Pigs Circ. Res., April 30, 1999; 84(8): 945 - 954. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Uchida, M. Yashima, M. Gotoh, Z. Qu, A. Garfinkel, J. N. Weiss, M. C. Fishbein, W. J. Mandel, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Mechanism of Acceleration of Functional Reentry in the Ventricle : Effects of ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channel Opener Circulation, February 9, 1999; 99(5): 704 - 712. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Mandapati, Y. Asano, W. T. Baxter, R. Gray, J. Davidenko, and J. Jalife Quantification of Effects of Global Ischemia on Dynamics of Ventricular Fibrillation in Isolated Rabbit Heart Circulation, October 20, 1998; 98(16): 1688 - 1696. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. A. Athill, T. Ikeda, Y.-H. Kim, T.-J. Wu, M. C. Fishbein, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Transmembrane Potential Properties at the Core of Functional Reentrant Wave Fronts in Isolated Canine Right Atria Circulation, October 13, 1998; 98(15): 1556 - 1567. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T.-J. Wu, M. Yashima, F. Xie, C. A. Athill, Y.-H. Kim, M. C. Fishbein, Z. Qu, A. Garfinkel, J. N. Weiss, H. S. Karagueuzian, et al. Role of Pectinate Muscle Bundles in the Generation and Maintenance of Intra-atrial Reentry : Potential Implications for the Mechanism of Conversion Between Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Flutter Circ. Res., August 24, 1998; 83(4): 448 - 462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T.-J. Wu, J. J. C. Ong, C. Hwang, J. J. Lee, M. C. Fishbein, L. Czer, A. Trento, C. Blanche, R. M. Kass, W. J. Mandel, et al. Characteristics of wave fronts during ventricular fibrillation in human hearts with dilated cardiomyopathy: role of increased fibrosis in the generation of reentry J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., July 1, 1998; 32(1): 187 - 196. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Berenfeld and J. Jalife Purkinje-Muscle Reentry as a Mechanism of Polymorphic Ventricular Arrhythmias in a 3-Dimensional Model of the Ventricles Circ. Res., June 1, 1998; 82(10): 1063 - 1077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Y. Kwan, W. Fan, D. Hough, J. J. Lee, M. C. Fishbein, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Effects of Procainamide on Wave-Front Dynamics During Ventricular Fibrillation in Open-Chest Dogs Circulation, May 12, 1998; 97(18): 1828 - 1836. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Ikeda, M. Yashima, T. Uchida, D. Hough, M. C. Fishbein, W. J. Mandel, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Attachment of Meandering Reentrant Wave Fronts to Anatomic Obstacles in the Atrium : Role of the Obstacle Size Circ. Res., November 19, 1997; 81(5): 753 - 764. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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T. Ikeda, L. Czer, A. Trento, C. Hwang, J. J. C. Ong, D. Hough, M. C. Fishbein, W. J. Mandel, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen \E Induction of Meandering Functional Reentrant Wave Front in Isolated Human Atrial Tissues Circulation, November 4, 1997; 96(9): 3013 - 3020. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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K. Kamjoo, T. Uchida, T. Ikeda, M. C. Fishbein, A. Garfinkel, J. N. Weiss, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Importance of Location and Timing of Electrical Stimuli in Terminating Sustained Functional Reentry in Isolated Swine Ventricular Tissues : Evidence in Support of a Small Reentrant Circuit Circulation, September 16, 1997; 96(6): 2048 - 2060. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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M. Gotoh, T. Uchida, W. J. Mandel, M. C. Fishbein, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Cellular Graded Responses and Ventricular Vulnerability to Reentry by a Premature Stimulus in Isolated Canine Ventricle Circulation, April 15, 1997; 95(8): 2141 - 2154. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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T. Ikeda, T. Uchida, D. Hough, J. J. Lee, M. C. Fishbein, W. J. Mandel, P.-S. Chen, and H. S. Karagueuzian Mechanism of Spontaneous Termination of Functional Reentry in Isolated Canine Right Atrium: Evidence for the Presence of an Excitable but Nonexcited Core Circulation, October 15, 1996; 94(8): 1962 - 1973. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 A. Garfinkel, Y.-H. Kim, O. Voroshilovsky, Z. Qu, J. R. Kil, M.-H. Lee, H. S. Karagueuzian, J. N. Weiss, and P.-S. Chen From the Cover: Preventing ventricular fibrillation by flattening cardiac restitution PNAS, May 23, 2000; 97(11): 6061 - 6066. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Valderrabano, M.-H. Lee, T. Ohara, A. C. Lai, M. C. Fishbein, S.-F. Lin, H. S. Karagueuzian, and P.-S. Chen Dynamics of Intramural and Transmural Reentry During Ventricular Fibrillation in Isolated Swine Ventricles Circ. Res., April 27, 2001; 88(8): 839 - 848. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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