© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Biphasic Defibrillation Waveforms Reduce Shock-Induced Response Duration Dispersion Between Low and High Shock Intensities
From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Georgetown University, and Cardiac Research Laboratory, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, DC.
Correspondence to Janice L. Jones, PhD, VA Medical Center 151P, 50 Irving St NW, Washington, DC 20422.
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Abstract |
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Abstract Mechanisms underlying defibrillation threshold reduction with biphasic waveforms remain unclear. The interaction of local shock-induced voltage gradients, which change with distance from the shocking electrode, and the state of membrane repolarization results in different cellular responses that may influence the success of defibrillation. We used intracellular microelectrodes and S1S2 pacing protocols in myocardial cell aggregates to determine the effects of shock intensity and waveform on refractory period responses during simulated fibrillation (3 s of S1 pacing at 180-ms cycle length). We simulated defibrillation by electric field stimulation S2 using 8-ms monophasic (MS2) and 4/4 biphasic (BS2) waveforms (65% total tilt) delivered at intensities of 1.5, 3, and 5 times S1 diastolic threshold, or
2 to 7
V/cm. Responses following MS2 varied with S2
intensity and coupling interval (P<.001). When averaged
over the last 10 ms of the refractory period, MS2 produced
a negligible response (8.8±1.4 ms) at 1.5 times diastolic
threshold and a prolonged response (53.0±3.1 ms) at 5 times
diastolic threshold (P<.01). In contrast,
BS2 response duration did not change significantly
(P=NS) between 1.5 times diastolic threshold
(35.1±12.6 ms) and 5 times diastolic threshold (46.2±2.7
ms). Our results suggest that biphasic waveforms not only prolong
response duration at low shock intensity but reduce dispersion of
refractoriness produced by differing local potential gradients
generated by defibrillation shocks compared with monophasic waveforms.
Preventing dispersion of refractoriness and prolonging shock-induced
responses may improve biphasic waveform efficacy at low shock
intensity.
Key Words: defibrillation waveform • refractory period stimulation • biphasic waveforms • myocardial cell aggregates
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Introduction |
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Results from human trials1 2 confirm animal experiments3 4 showing that biphasic waveforms lower defibrillation threshold compared with monophasic waveforms. The decreased defibrillation threshold with biphasic waveforms allows implantation of automatic implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in patients for which the defibrillation threshold is too high with monophasic waveforms5 and also permits the development of smaller defibrillators. However, mechanisms for the improved efficacy of biphasic waveforms remain unclear.
Refractory period membrane excitation leading to action potential prolongation ("extension of refractoriness" hypothesis) has been proposed as a mechanism for defibrillation.6 7 8 9 10 By prolonging the action potential and thus refractoriness, the shock blocks fibrillation wavefront(s) and stops fibrillation. It is also important that the defibrillating shock avoids conditions that are likely to lead to refibrillation. Dispersion of refractoriness is one known facilitator of reentry leading to fibrillation. A defibrillation shock creates differing potential gradients in different regions of the heart, with regions of higher intensity near the electrodes.11 Therefore, dispersion of refractoriness can be produced by inhomogeneous action potential prolongation caused by the interaction of different intensity shocks with different stages of membrane repolarization. The "upper limit of vulnerability" hypothesis12 13 states that the shock must also be strong enough to avoid dispersion of refractoriness leading to refibrillation.
Computer model studies in which the ventricular action potential was simulated in an isolated membrane patch have suggested that at the same S1S2 coupling interval, the duration of the shock-induced response is intensity dependent8 but that a significant interaction occurs between S2 shock intensity and coupling interval in determining shock-induced response duration.14 Because of this interaction, monophasic waveforms produced significant dispersion of repolarization for cells exposed to differing shock intensity and coupling intervals. Biphasic waveforms reduced the dispersion of refractoriness by prolonging APD between low– and high–current density regions more uniformly than did monophasic waveforms.
Experimental studies using current injection stimulation of myocardial cells paced at simulated normal sinus rhythm9 indicated that the results obtained in the computer model might explain results obtained in actual myocardial cells. However, cellular responses to current injection, where all portions of the sarcolemma are either depolarized or hyperpolarized by the stimulus, may differ significantly from responses to electric field stimulation, where opposite ends of the cell are subjected to opposite membrane polarization during the stimulus.15 16 17
A preliminary study18 suggested that similar responses to refractory period stimulation are also produced by electric field stimulation, which more closely simulates defibrillation fields. However, during fibrillation in both humans19 and animal models, CL is very short (100 to 200 ms), and there is no diastolic interval between action potentials. Because action potentials during early ventricular fibrillation show decreased amplitude and duration compared with action potentials during normal sinus rhythm,19 20 21 22 23 24 refractory period responses to S2 stimulation may also differ considerably.
Biphasic waveforms do not enhance action potential prolongation compared with monophasic waveforms when delivered to fibrillating hearts at intensities (5 V/cm) that are above the monophasic waveform defibrillation threshold.23 However, because the biphasic waveform defibrillation threshold is lower than the monophasic waveform threshold, there is a "window" of low shock intensities between 2 and 3 V/cm25 and 5 and 9 V/cm,26 27 in which the biphasic waveform produces successful defibrillation while the monophasic waveform fails to defibrillate. The "extension of refractoriness" hypothesis8 9 predicts that biphasic waveforms will enhance action potential prolongation only in this window of low intensities and that cellular responses in this window of low intensities may help to explain the improved defibrillation efficacy of biphasic waveforms.
Therefore, the goal of the present study was to test the following hypotheses for electric field simulation with S2 shocks delivered under fibrillation conditions: (1) The shock intensity/coupling interval–dependent action potential prolongation, seen in the computer model, occurs in actual cardiac cells. (2) The clinically used 8-ms 65%-tilt biphasic waveform, which decreases defibrillation threshold compared with the monophasic waveform,2 produces a longer shock-induced response duration when delivered to cells in the window of low intensities of enhanced biphasic waveform defibrillation effectiveness. (3) Within this low intensity window, the biphasic waveform reduces the dispersion in shock-induced response durations between low and high voltage gradients compared with the monophasic waveform.
In intact hearts, S2 stimuli with the S1S2 coupling intervals used in this study, which were delivered at the relevant shock intensities and were above the lower limit of vulnerability and below the upper limit of vulnerability, produce fibrillation. This complicates the measurement of S2 response duration. Therefore, myocardial cell aggregates, a preparation consisting of tightly coupled myocardial cells28 having typical ventricular action potential shape, were used as the experimental model. This model has been used successfully in many of our previous studies examining the effects of electrical stimulation on myocardial stimulation and dysfunction16 29 30 31 and therefore provides a wealth of control data on which to base the interpretation of the present study.
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Materials and Methods |
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Cell Aggregates
Myocardial cell aggregates were cultured by using techniques previously described.9 In short, cells from 9- to 11-day chick embryos were suspended, at a concentration of 106/mL, in L-15 (GIBCO) containing 10% fetal calf serum. The suspension of cells was transferred to a shaker bath at 37°C (68 to 70 rpm) in which cells formed aggregates (
100 to 200
cells) with a diameter ranging from 90 to 150 µm. Twenty minutes before experimentation, aggregates were placed in 60-mm tissue culture dishes that were coated with Cell-Tak adhesive (Collaborative Research Inc). A Plexiglas experimental chamber with a 2.3x3.3-cm rectangular opening was inserted in the culture dish. Platinum/platinum-black electrodes were attached to the long sides of the rectangular opening, 2.2 cm apart, so that a uniform electric field was produced throughout the dish. The culture dish was then placed on a 37°C heated stage of an inverted microscope.9 16
Electrolyte Solutions and Drugs
Cells were superfused at 37°C with modified Krebs' solution
containing (mmol/L) NaCl 110, KCl 4, NaH2PO4
1.2, NaHCO3 32, MgSO4 1.2, CaCl2
2.5, dextrose 5.5, and pyruvate 2.0. Insulin (10 U/L) was added to the
working solution just before use. The solution was bubbled continuously
with 95% O2/5% CO2 to maintain a pH of
7.4.
The whole-cell recording solution used in the pipette for cellular impalement consisted of (mmol/L) KCl 140, MgCl2 2, EGTA 11, CaCl2 1, and HEPES 10, adjusted to pH 7.2 with 3N KOH.
Instrumentation
Electric field stimulation was delivered to the cells via
platinum/platinum-black electrodes. A Macintosh computer with
LABVIEW 2.2.1 software (National Instruments) synthesized
the 10-ms rectangular S1 waveform and the 8-ms monophasic
and biphasic (with the polarity reversed after 4 ms) S2
waveforms with a total tilt of 65% (Fig 1
). The
biphasic pulse was a single capacitor waveform; the trailing voltage of
phase 1 was equal to the leading voltage of phase 2. The signal was
amplified by a custom DC-coupled power amplifier (Cardiac Pacemakers,
Inc).
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Transmembrane potentials were acquired with a single microelectrode
(tip resistance, 2 to 4 M
) using an Axoclamp-2A (Axon Instruments,
Inc) in the bridge mode. A silver/silver chloride wire served as the
indifferent electrode. Reduction of the shock artifact in the
microelectrode system was achieved by applying a train of low-amplitude
stimuli (approximately one-half threshold intensity) while positioning
the indifferent electrode to produce the minimum artifact in the
recording. The data were simultaneously displayed
on an analog oscilloscope, acquired by a Macintosh computer at a
sampling rate of 5 KHz, and stored on disk for off-line
analysis. All data from each aggregate were obtained with a
single penetration.
Experimental Protocol
Cell aggregates (n=7) from different hearts were impaled by
guiding the pipette tip to the cell membrane until an increase in the
voltage indicated contact of the cell membrane with the pipette tip.
Then low-level suction was applied to the pipette to form a
gigaohm-level seal. Penetration to the interior of the cell was
achieved by applying a higher level suction.
Cells were stimulated by use of an S1S2 protocol. "Control" conditions simulating normal sinus rhythm were defined by pacing the cells at a CL of 600 ms for 10 s.
During fibrillation, CL between action potentials of myocardial cells becomes very short and relatively uniform (CL, 215±28 ms in humans19 ). The fibrillation activation-front pathways leading to this rapid excitation vary from beat to beat32 ; thus, cells are excited at different fiber orientations with slightly different timing, and relative contributions of ionic channels to fibrillation action potentials vary between beats. During the first few seconds of fibrillation, there is still some perfusion, because 5 to 10 s is required for blood pressure to drop to the mean circulatory pressure and for flow to cease. Therefore, after short fibrillation durations, ischemia and increased extracellular potassium are less likely to influence the response of myocardial cells to a defibrillation shock than are cellular conditions imposed by the preceding period of rapid excitation, which produces action potential shortening and alters the ionic currents. Therefore, we used rapid S1 pacing to simulate fibrillation. Three seconds of "simulated fibrillation" were used so that effects of refractory period stimulation, independent of the ischemic effects that develop with longer periods of fibrillation, could be examined. The S1 pacing stimuli consisted of seventeen 10-ms monophasic rectangular pulses delivered at a basic CL of 180 ms at 1.5 times excitation threshold. This was the shortest CL that could be achieved without producing alternans.
The S2 (8-ms monophasic or 4/4 biphasic pulses) shocks were delivered at intensities of 1.5, 3, and 5 times diastolic threshold of the 8-ms monophasic waveform. The S1 refractory period was defined as the longest S1S2 coupling interval that did not produce an action potential when the monophasic truncated exponential S2 was delivered at 1.5 times diastolic threshold. The S1 action potential was scanned by the S2 in steps of 5 ms, from 10 ms inside to 5 ms outside the refractory period for each S2 test pulse and amplitude.
Data Analysis
The shock-induced response duration was measured at 90%
repolarization with the aid of a custom computer program. Response
duration was defined as the time interval between the beginning of the
S2 stimulus and 90% repolarization of the S2
response, as shown in Fig 2A. The action potential
amplitude required for determining 90% repolarization was measured as
the difference between the takeoff potential and the transmembrane
potential at the beginning of the plateau phase, as measured 20-ms
after the beginning of the stimulus. This time was chosen because the
stimulus artifact is complete, as shown in Fig 2.
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The S1S2 coupling intervals for each cell were normalized by subtracting the S2 monophasic waveform refractory period (measured at 1.5 times diastolic threshold) from the measured S1S2 coupling interval for each episode to produce FNCI.9 FNCI of 0 ms corresponds to the end of the S1 action potential refractory period to a monophasic S2 of 1.5 times diastolic threshold.
A total of 122 of 148 S1S2 episodes were included in the analysis (61 episodes each for the monophasic and biphasic test pulses). All data used in the study were paired for monophasic and biphasic waveforms at the same intensities and coupling intervals within each cell. Thirteen pairs of episodes were eliminated for one of the following reasons: (1) After the data were normalized for coupling interval, some episodes did not occur in a sufficient number of cells to be statistically evaluated because they were too early or too late. (2) Some episodes had poor quality recordings.
Results are shown as mean±SEM. Significance of differences was determined by ANOVA and multiple comparisons using Student-Newman-Keuls and Bonferroni tests. Differences were considered significant at P<.05.
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Results |
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Transmembrane potential recordings were obtained during 122 S1S2-simulated fibrillation episodes (CL, 180 ms). Control recordings for action potential characterization were also taken during S1 pacing at a CL of 600 ms in each aggregate. Mean stimulation voltage threshold for the rectangular 10-ms monophasic pulse at CLs of 600 and 180 ms was 10.3±0.9 and 10.6±1.0 V, respectively. Mean stimulation threshold for the truncated exponential 8-ms monophasic test pulse was 13.2±1.4 V. Under control conditions (CL, 600 ms), the resting potential was -84±0.8 mV, APD at 90% repolarization was 152±7.2 ms, and action potential amplitude was 125±0.7 mV. Under simulated fibrillation (CL, 180 ms), APD was reduced to 128±3.5 ms (P<.007), and action potential amplitude was reduced to 119±0.8 mV (P<.01).
Fig 2
shows responses to S2 stimuli delivered to a typical
cell at a coupling interval of 140 ms, which corresponded to 87%
repolarization. S2 stimuli were delivered at 1.5, 3, and 5
times the diastolic threshold of the MS2
waveform. At an intensity of 1.5 times diastolic threshold,
the monophasic pulse produced only a passive membrane response, as
shown by the dotted line in Fig 2A. Therefore, this coupling interval
was defined as being within the S1 refractory period. At
the higher intensities of 3 and 5 times diastolic
threshold, the MS2 produced action potential–type
responses at the same coupling interval. These responses produced a
shock-induced response duration of 70 ms.
In contrast to the passive response produced by MS2 at 1.5
times diastolic threshold, BS2 produced a
response with a plateau that produced a response duration of 73 ms.
Therefore, even at the low intensity of 1.5 times diastolic
threshold, BS2 produced a response duration similar to that
produced by the higher intensity MS2. At 3 times
diastolic threshold, the BS2 shock–induced
response duration was 62 ms, and at 5 times diastolic
threshold, it was 65 ms. In Fig 2, a comparison of panels A and B shows
that the biphasic waveform (panel B) produces a more uniform response
at all intensities tested than does the monophasic waveform (panel
A).
The effect of S2 shock intensity and waveform on response
duration was determined during both early and late repolarization. Fig 3 shows the mean±SEM response duration produced by
MS2 and BS2 test pulses at coupling intervals
ranging from 10 ms inside the S1 refractory period (FNCI,
-10 ms) to 5 ms outside the refractory period (FNCI, +5 ms). The
corresponding (mean±SEM) S1 membrane potentials
(S2 takeoff potential) and percent S1
repolarization at FNCI values of -10, -5, 0, and +5 ms were
-44.2±0.8 (66% repolarization), -55.2±0.7 (75% repolarization),
-63.7±0.6 (82% repolarization), -71±1.4 (89% repolarization) mV,
respectively. Fig 3A shows responses produced by S2 at 1.5
times diastolic threshold. MS2 (solid line),
produced a negligible response for coupling intervals inside the
refractory period, ie, FNCI of 
0 ms. For example, the response
produced at FNCI of 0 ms was only 10.0±1.9 ms in duration. Outside the
refractory period (FNCI, +5 ms), a short action potential was induced
that was 68.5±4.7 ms in duration. In contrast to the monophasic
waveform, BS2 produced a prolonged response even when
delivered within the S1 refractory period. At this low
intensity, the BS2 response was 19.0±4.6 ms at FNCI of
-10 ms (66% repolarization) and 60.0±3.0 ms at FNCI of 0 ms (82%
repolarization). Two-way ANOVA showed that at 1.5 times
diastolic threshold, response duration varied interactively
as a function of both waveform and coupling interval
(P<.001). At coupling intervals of -5 and 0 ms,
BS2 produced a significantly longer response
(P<.05) than did MS2 (60.0±7.4 versus
10.0±1.9 ms at FNCI of 0 ms).
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indicates MS2
responses; 
, BS2 responses. The vertical dotted line
highlights the end of the S1 refractory period. FNCI was
obtained by subtracting the coupling interval corresponding to the end
of S1 refractory period to MS2 of 1.5 times
diastolic threshold from the measured
S1S2 coupling interval.
Fig 3B shows responses to MS2 and BS2 delivered
at 3 times diastolic threshold. At this shock intensity,
responses to MS2 and BS2 were similar at all
coupling intervals; eg, there was no interaction between waveform and
coupling interval (by ANOVA). Both waveforms produced prolonged
responses at FNCI of 0 ms (MS2, 60.6±5.2 ms;
BS2, 51.0±6.4 ms; P=NS). At FNCI of -5
ms, the responses were also similar (MS2, 28.0±3.3
ms; BS2, 25.2±0.6 ms; P=NS) but were
significantly shorter than those produced at FNCI of 0 ms.
At the higher intensity of 5 times diastolic threshold (Fig 3C), both MS2 and BS2 produced long responses
when delivered up to 10 ms into the S1 refractory period.
For MS2 (solid line) at FNCI of -10 ms, the response
duration was 49.2±4.4 ms, which was significantly longer
(P<.003) than that produced by 1.5 times
diastolic threshold (MS2, 10.5±2.9
ms).
At 5 times diastolic threshold, BS2 (Fig 3C,
dotted line) also prolonged response duration at all coupling
intervals. However, in contrast to results obtained at the low
intensity of 1.5 times diastolic threshold, the responses
produced by BS2 were slightly but significantly shorter
than those produced by MS2 at all coupling intervals
(P<.001 by ANOVA). At this higher intensity,
MS2 produced an 11-ms longer response duration than did
BS2 at 66% repolarization and a 13-ms longer response
duration at 82% repolarization. The mean response duration averaged
over all coupling intervals was 55.2±1.7 ms for MS2 and
43.8±2.1 ms for BS2. There was no statistically
significant interaction between waveform and coupling interval at this
intensity.
Fig 4 shows the response duration for monophasic (panel
A) and biphasic (panel B) waveforms as a function of
S1S2 coupling interval and shock intensity. As
shown in panels A and B, outside the refractory period (FNCI, >0 ms),
both MS2 and BS2 produced long responses at
both 1.5 and 5 times diastolic threshold, as would be
expected for pacing during diastole. MS2 shown
in Fig 4A, when delivered within the refractory period (FNCI, 0 ms),
produced a short response at 1.5 times diastolic threshold
and a long response at 5 times diastolic threshold. The
mean response duration for FNCI of 0 ms was 8.8±1.4 ms at 1.5 times
diastolic threshold and 53.0±3.1 ms at 5 times
diastolic threshold (P<.001 by two-way ANOVA).
Therefore, there was a large dispersion in response duration produced
between high and low S2 intensities.
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Fig 4B shows the mean S2 response duration for the biphasic
waveform. In contrast to the results shown in Fig 4A, BS2
produced longer responses at both low (1.5 times diastolic
threshold) and high (5 times diastolic threshold) intensity
for all measured coupling intervals within the S1
refractory period (FNCI, 0 ms). The mean response duration for FNCI
of 0 ms was similar (35.1±12.6 ms at 1.5 times diastolic
threshold and 46.2±2.7 ms at 5 times diastolic threshold,
P=NS by ANOVA).
All measured response durations for the lowest and highest intensities
within the window (1.5 and 5 times diastolic threshold) at
FNCI of 0 ms (representing the coupling intervals during
the relative refractory period) were grouped. The mean response
duration for the biphasic waveform (39.9±3.2 ms) was significantly
longer than that for the monophasic waveform (26.9±4.4 ms,
P<.02). These differences are depicted in the box plot
shown in Fig 4C. The box plot shows that the median response duration
is short (15.0 ms) and that the dispersion is very large (50% of
values have a range of 45 ms) for the monophasic waveform. In contrast,
for the biphasic waveform, the median response duration is much longer
(40.0 ms), and the dispersion is markedly reduced (50% of values fall
within a range of only 22 ms). Because BS2 produced long
responses at both low and high intensity, the response duration, as a
function of both coupling interval and S2 intensity, had a
dispersion that was less than one half that of the monophasic waveform.
Therefore, the BS2 response was both longer and had a
smaller dispersion than that for MS2.
Fig 5 shows the relation between response duration and
intensity for MS2 and BS2 at FNCI of 0 ms. The
differences in the mean response duration among the different levels of
intensities and between waveforms were statistically significant by
two-way ANOVA (P<.001). The effects of different levels of
intensity depended on which waveform was present. The monophasic
waveform response duration increased by 50.6±4.0 ms between 1.5 and 3
times diastolic threshold and then reached a plateau. The
Student-Newman-Keuls test for multiple comparisons showed a
statistically significant difference (P<.05) between
MS2 at 1.5 times diastolic threshold and at 3
and 5 times diastolic threshold. In contrast, the response
duration produced by the biphasic waveform did not change significantly
between 1.5 and 5 times diastolic threshold
(P=NS) but maintained the long response duration of >40 ms,
which was attained by MS2 only at high intensities.
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Defibrillation Success and Action Potential Prolongation With Monophasic Waveforms
During fibrillation in humans19 and in animals,24 action potentials immediately follow one another, with little or no period of diastole. Therefore, in contrast to cardiac pacing, defibrillation involves interaction of the shock with cells primarily during their action potentials, ie, during some phase of their refractory period. In addition, during fibrillation, the circus movement produces multiple small wavelets of excitation.33 Thus, action potential propagation throughout the heart is erratic, and different regions of the heart are in different phases of the action potential at the time of the shock. Because of these two factors, the response of cells to shocks delivered during the refractory period rather than during diastole is important in understanding the mechanisms of defibrillation.8 9
To achieve successful defibrillation, the shock must halt activation
wavefront(s) in all or in a critical mass of the
myocardium.34 Cells early in their absolute
refractory period will remain refractory to incoming fibrillation
wavefront(s) for a critical postshock period of time regardless of the
extended refractory period produced by the shock. Therefore, reentry of
fibrillation wavefront(s) cannot take place in those regions. The
vulnerable regions are those in which fibrillation wavefront(s) are
about to reenter, ie, those that are in the last few milliseconds of
their refractory period,35 as shown by the hypothetical
situation in Fig 6. The solid line in this figure shows
the last three S1 action potentials (CL, 180 ms) that
simulate fibrillation and the prolonged response induced by
BS2. The dashed line represents the continuation of
the S1 responses simulating fibrillation and
represents the timing of wavefront arrival leading to local
excitation if the simulated fibrillation had continued. Because the
S2 shock prolonged the total APD, the cell would have been
refractory at the time of the next incoming fibrillation wavefront. If
this phenomenon occurred in all or a critical mass of tissue,
fibrillation would be terminated.
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During defibrillation, not only does the shock interact with cells in
all phases of their action potentials, but the local voltage gradient
distribution throughout the heart varies so that regions near the shock
electrodes are exposed to relatively high shock intensities while those
regions far from the electrodes are exposed to low
intensities.7 26 27 For successful defibrillation, the
shock must extend the refractory period in both high- and low-intensity
regions. It has been previously shown that successful defibrillation
requires a local voltage gradient of 6 to 7 V/cm in low-intensity
regions.27 This corresponds to local shock intensities of
3 to 6 times the diastolic excitation threshold, which are
the intensities used in the present study (excitation threshold is
1 to 2 V/cm36 ).
The experimental results described in the present study are
consistent with the results of our previous computer model of
S2 stimulation of the ventricular cell membrane
patch.8 14 In both the experimental and theoretical
models, at low intensity (1.5 times diastolic threshold),
MS2 response duration did not increase until action
potentials were produced for S1S2 coupling
intervals outside the refractory period (compare Fig 3A with Fig 3 of
Jones et al14 ). In both models, monophasic waveform
stimulation within the refractory period produced significant action
potential prolongation at the higher intensities of 3 to 5 times
diastolic threshold. Response duration as a function of
shock intensity, for S2 delivered at 80% to 90%
S1 repolarization, reached a plateau by 3 to 5 times
diastolic threshold (compare Fig 5 with Fig 1 of Jones and
Jones8 ).
The present results using electric field stimulation under
fibrillation conditions are consistent with an earlier study
showing lack of refractory period extension by using intracellular
current injection S2, at 1.5 times
diastolic threshold (MS2), delivered to cells
during slow S1 stimulation, simulating normal sinus
rhythm.9 This similarity demonstrates that intracellular
current injection and electric field stimulation produce similar
S2 responses in spite of their very different
physiological effects on the cell.
Consistent with our results (shown in Fig 3), low-intensity
MS2 stimulation (1.4 V/cm) in rabbit papillary muscle also
does not produce refractory period responses. Only at high intensities
above the defibrillation threshold7 (8.4
V/cm37 ) is S1 repolarization delayed by
S2 stimuli delivered during the refractory period.
Defibrillation Success and Uniform Repolarization With
Monophasic Waveforms
In addition to the "extension of refractoriness" mechanism
described above, a second mechanism for defibrillation has been
proposed (the "upper limit of vulnerability" hypothesis). This
hypothesis states that shocks below the upper limit of
vulnerability12 cause refibrillation due to a nonuniform
dispersion of refractoriness following the shock. The "upper limit
of vulnerability" hypothesis suggests that in order to halt
fibrillation without reinducing fibrillation, a successful shock must
produce a relatively uniform extension of refractoriness for cells in
various stages of repolarization and in both high– and low–shock
intensity regions of the heart. Consistent with this
hypothesis, successful defibrillation shocks produce a uniform response
duration or "synchronized repolarization"6 in
isolated rabbit hearts. The results of the present study are also
consistent with this hypothesis. Fig 4C shows that with
MS2, a low-intensity shock with a minimum voltage
gradient of 1.5 times diastolic threshold and a maximum
voltage gradient of 5 times diastolic threshold produces a
large dispersion of response duration (corresponding to a large
dispersion of refractoriness). Only at relatively high shock
intensities, ie, 3 to 5 times diastolic threshold, can
monophasic waveforms produce the required degree of uniformity of
repolarization, independent of coupling interval. These results confirm
the relatively high local voltage gradient of 5 to 6 V/cm in
minimum–shock intensity regions of the heart required for successful
defibrillation.
Therefore, two important criteria must be satisfied for successful defibrillation. First, the shock must prolong the fibrillation APD. Second, the shock must prevent the dispersion of repolarization between low- and high-intensity regions of the heart, because a wide dispersion of repolarization facilitates fibrillation.38 With monophasic waveforms, nonuniform repolarization can take place not only because of the lack of prolongation in low-intensity regions but also because of postshock action potential changes (due to transient shock-induced dysfunction) in the high-intensity regions immediately adjacent to the defibrillation electrodes.16 31 39 40
Mechanism of Defibrillation Threshold Reduction With Biphasic
Waveforms
Defibrillation threshold is frequently defined by using an up-down
protocol. By use of this type of protocol, many biphasic waveforms,
created by reversing the polarity of the shock part way through the
pulse delivery, have defibrillation thresholds that require only
50% of the energy needed for corresponding monophasic waveforms.
The monophasic waveform requires a minimum voltage gradient in the
heart of 5 to 6 V/cm,23 or 3 to 6 times
diastolic threshold,36 in those regions of
lowest shock intensity far from the electrodes, whereas selected
biphasic waveforms require only 2.7 V/cm,23 or 1.5
times diastolic excitation threshold.
Mechanisms through which biphasic waveforms reduce defibrillation
threshold can be more fully understood by examining the probability of
successful defibrillation versus shock-intensity
curves.3 4 These curves show that the probability of
successful defibrillation is similar for monophasic and biphasic
waveforms at relatively high shock intensities, for which the
monophasic waveform defibrillates successfully. They also show that at
very low shock intensities, neither the monophasic nor the biphasic
waveform defibrillates successfully. However, there is a window of
shock intensities between these values for which the biphasic waveform
has a high probability of success and for which the monophasic waveform
fails. This window begins at shock intensities that produce a minimum
voltage gradient of 3 V/cm, or 1.5 times diastolic
threshold, and ends at 5 to 7 V/cm, or 3 to 5 times
diastolic threshold. The cellular responses produced by
S2 stimulation in this shock intensity window may provide a
key to understanding mechanisms underlying the lower defibrillation
threshold for the biphasic waveform compared with the monophasic
waveform.
The results in Figs 3 and 4 of the present study show that
BS2 stimulation, delivered under fibrillation conditions,
uniformly prolongs the refractory period and decreases dispersion of
refractoriness within this window consistent with results from
a preliminary experimental study at normal sinus rhythm18
and with the computer modeling study discussed
previously.14 In the computer model, low-intensity 10-ms
biphasic waveforms of 1.5 times diastolic threshold, when
delivered during the refractory period of the previous S1
action potential, produced 62-ms longer graded responses than did a
comparable monophasic waveform. This prolongation did not occur when
sodium channels were blocked immediately before S2. At
higher intensities of 5 times diastolic threshold, both
monophasic and biphasic waveforms produced similar long responses that
were independent of sodium channel blockage. The prolonged responses
produced by both MS2 and BS2 at 5 times
diastolic threshold are consistent with their
similarly high defibrillation efficacy at shock intensities outside of
the window.
The enhanced response duration produced by low-intensity biphasic waveforms compared with monophasic waveforms and the lack of prolongation with sodium channel blockage can be explained by the hypothesis that the first phase of a biphasic pulse hyperpolarizes portions of the cell membrane. This allows time- and voltage-dependent sodium channel recovery from inactivation and increases the availability of sodium channels.8 9 14 The second pulse then depolarizes the membrane and produces a longer response than could the monophasic pulse alone.
Studies underlying the hypothesis that enhanced refractory period responses produced by low-intensity biphasic waveforms correlate with their enhanced defibrillation efficacies at low intensity have been primarily carried out at long CLs typical of normal sinus rhythm rather than at the short CLs that occur during fibrillation. APD is a function of CL, so that during fibrillation action potentials become very short, with durations ranging from 80 to 200 ms. APD shortens with CL because of the rate-dependent activation of several membrane ionic channels; this occurrence may be important in defibrillation. One study suggesting this importance shows that a "constant repolarization time" phenomenon that was observed at shock intensities producing successful defibrillation6 occurred only under fibrillation conditions but not at slower CLs. The results of the present study address the issue of CL dependence by demonstrating that at short CLs, which simulate fibrillation, the constant repolarization time6 (equivalent to our postshock response duration) for monophasic waveforms requires high-intensity stimuli of 5 times diastolic threshold. However, biphasic waveforms prolong response duration within the low intensity window beginning at 1.5 times diastolic threshold, suggesting that it is the prolonged refractory period responses that are responsible for successful defibrillation at low intensities.
Two studies appear at first to contradict the present results but are actually consistent. One report11 showed direct excitation produced by 3-ms monophasic waveforms that was further into the refractory period than that produced by 2/1 biphasic waveforms. In contrast, our results showed a 12-ms shorter refractory period with 4/4 biphasic waveforms than with 8-ms monophasic waveforms (at equivalent intensity). Because sodium channel recovery is time and voltage dependent, the difference between these studies can be determined by the difference in first phase duration. In the Daubert study,40 the first pulse was only 2 ms, and sodium channel recovery may not have taken place. Therefore, the direct excitation efficacy of the biphasic waveform was equivalent to the higher value of a 2-ms monophasic waveform.41 With the longer first phase (4 ms) used in the present study, sodium channel recovery could occur, and the biphasic waveform was able to shorten the refractory period.
A second report23 shows that 8/8 biphasic waveforms,
delivered during the fibrillation action potential at an intensity of 5
V/cm, produce less action potential prolongation than do 16-ms
monophasic waveforms. Fig 3C shows longer responses for the monophasic
waveform than for the biphasic waveform at the equivalent intensity of
5 times diastolic threshold. Biphasic waveforms
significantly enhanced APD prolongation only in the low-intensity
window. In this context, it is important to note that studies to
determine mechanisms underlying the enhanced efficacy of biphasic
waveforms at low shock intensities must examine differences in cellular
responses between monophasic and biphasic waveforms in this low
intensity window. In this voltage gradient window, the enhanced action
potential prolongation observed with biphasic waveforms correlates with
their enhanced defibrillation efficacy.9
In summary, the results from the present study show that at fibrillation CLs, 4/4 low-intensity (1.5 times diastolic threshold) biphasic defibrillator waveforms (65% tilt) (1) significantly enhance action potential prolongation when delivered during the S1 refractory period and (2) shorten the S1 cellular refractory period. At higher intensities (3 to 5 times diastolic threshold), both monophasic and biphasic waveforms produce significant prolongation of cellular APD. Both biphasic and monophasic defibrillator waveforms also reduce dispersion of response duration at intensities above their respective defibrillation threshold. The similarity in response of cardiac tissue to electric shocks at CLs representing normal sinus rhythm as well as fibrillation and the ability of computer models of the cardiac cell membrane to predict these results suggest that enhanced membrane responses produced by biphasic waveforms at low shock intensity are basic properties of the cardiac cell membrane.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by US Public Health Service grant HL-24606 and by the Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center. We thank Nettie Knight for her expert technical assistance.
Received August 9, 1994; accepted May 1, 1995.
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References |
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