© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) in Arteries of the Neonatal Lamb
From the Banting and Best Diabetes Centre, The Toronto Hospital Research Institute, and the Department of Pathology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Correspondence to B. Lowell Langille, PhD, The Toronto Hospital Research Institute, 200 Elizabeth St, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada.
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Abstract We have examined whether cell death contributes to postnatal remodeling of arteries in lambs. First, abdominal aortic smooth muscle cell proliferation rates fell from 2.87±0.08% per day at 3 days of age to 1.75±0.15% per day at 21 days. These proliferation rates would yield a 50% increase in DNA content in the absence of cell death. No increase in DNA content was observed (P<.05 for predicted versus measured accumulation); therefore, significant cell death was inferred. The same analysis did not indicate high cell-death rates in the carotid, renal, or iliac arteries; however, cell death was detected in situ by end-labeling partially degraded DNA with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase or by nuclear labeling with propidium iodide, a fluorescent dye that permeates only nonviable cells. Nuclei were labeled in all arteries, although labeling was most frequent in the abdominal aorta, a vessel that regresses substantially after birth. Cell death was apoptotic because DNA extracted from arteries and end-labeled with [32P]dCTP produced a series of low molecular weight bands (DNA ladder) on an agarose gel, a hallmark of apoptosis. The ladder was strong for neonatal abdominal aorta but weak for other arteries. Only weak laddering was observed for fetal abdominal aortas in late gestation, confirming that high apoptosis rates in this vessel were initiated after birth. Intense DNA ladders and frequent in situ labeling indicated high rates of apoptosis in the postnatal intra-abdominal umbilical artery, another vessel that regresses after birth. We conclude that apoptosis contributes to postpartum arterial remodeling . This contribution is greatest in arteries that regress after birth.
Key Words: cell suicide • physiological cell death • arterial remodeling
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Introduction |
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Apoptosis (programmed cell death, physiological cell death) is cell suicide, apparently controlled by a balance of cell-survival and cell-death signals,1 that contributes to many fundamental biological processes, including morphogenesis,2 3 4 remodeling of mature tissues,5 6 7 and negative selection of T lymphocytes.8 Apoptosis differs morphologically from necrosis: cells exhibit cytoplasmic and nuclear condensation, and then they fragment into apoptotic bodies without membrane disruption. Apoptotic bodies are phagocytosed by neighboring cells or macrophages without inducing an inflammatory response.1 9 Nuclear condensation apparently results from release of endonucleases that degrade DNA into large fragments of 50 to 300 kb10 11 and then into smaller fragments of 180 to 200 bp because of internucleosomal cleavage.1
Apoptosis has been studied extensively in embryogenesis. It is
responsible for digit formation in the developing limb
bud,12 the loss of 
50% of developing central
neurons,3 and the early organization of renal tissues in
the metanephros.2 Despite this emphasis, recent evidence
indicates that apoptosis in developmental tissue remodeling has been
underestimated, mostly because of the difficulty in detecting the dying
cells. Detection is difficult because apoptosis is identifiable, either
morphologically or biochemically, for only 1 to 3
hours.3 13
The short duration of detectability has masked relatively high rates of apoptosis during embryonic morphogenesis3 ; therefore, its role in much slower rates of tissue remodeling during later development has been unexplored. We became interested in the role of cell death in the remodeling of arteries that occurs as they adapt to perinatal changes in cardiovascular function. Our interest was stimulated by data indicating that DNA accumulation in the abdominal aorta of neonatal lambs was much below that predicted from mitosis rates, if all cells were assumed to survive.14 The abdominal aorta undergoes particularly extensive remodeling in association with a 95% decrease in blood flow when the placenta is lost at birth.15 16 However, virtually all other large arteries undergo very large changes in blood flow in the perinatal period, and available data indicate that substantial remodeling also occurs in these vessels.15
The present study tested for direct evidence that programmed cell death occurs in large arteries perinatally. Several independent techniques confirm high cell-death rates, and our data implicate apoptosis as a mode of cell death. Apoptosis rates were particularly high in the abdominal aorta after, but not before, birth. This finding implicates apoptosis in the pronounced postnatal remodeling of this artery that occurs after birth.
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Arterial Smooth Muscle Cell Replication
Lambs aged 3, 12, and 21 days (five lambs at each age) were given intramuscular injections of [3H]thymidine (500 µCi/kg) at 17, 9, and 1 hour before they were killed by intravenous injection of euthanasia solution, 200 mg/mL N-[2-m-methophenyl-2-ethylbutyl-(1)]-2 hydroxybutyramide, 50 mg/mL 4,4'-methylene bis(cyclohexyltrimethylamonium iodide), and 5 mg/mL tetracaine hydrochloride (T-61, Hoechst Canada, Inc). The heart and central arteries were exposed by performing a bilateral thoracotomy, and the ascending aorta was cannulated. The arterial system was fixed by perfusion with 1% paraformaldehyde and 1% glutaraldehyde in phosphate buffer for 30 minutes at a pressure of 70 mm Hg for 3-day-old lambs and 100 mm Hg for 12- and 21-day-old lambs. Arterial tissues (aorta and the iliac, superior mesenteric, carotid, and renal arteries) were removed and immersed in fixative for 18 to 24 hours. Unbranched segments were embedded in paraffin, and then 5-mm sections were deparaffinized in xylene, air-dried overnight, dipped in Kodak NTB-2 emulsion (Eastman Kodak), and stored at 4°C for 2 weeks in total darkness. The slides were developed in Kodak D-19 developer and stained with Mayer's hematoxylin (Sigma Chemical Co). Labeled (replicating) and unlabeled cells were counted to determine the percentage of smooth muscle cells that were replicating.
Arterial Tissue DNA Content
The same arteries listed above, but from different lambs, were
harvested between well-defined anatomic landmarks at 3 and 21 days
after birth. Ten lambs were studied at each age. The iliac artery was
excised between the aorta and the origin of the external iliac artery,
the renal arteries were removed from the aorta to a bifurcation site
just proximal to the hilus of the kidney, the abdominal aorta was
excised between the left renal artery and the iliac bifurcation, and
the left carotid artery was removed from its origin to its termination.
All vessels were cleared of adventitia. The vessel segments were
homogenized, and DNA content of each artery was measured by a
fluorometric assay.17 This method exploits the enhancement
by tissue DNA of the fluorescence of bisbenzimidazole (Hoechst 33258,
Sigma), which is then compared with DNA standards.
DNA contents at 3 days of age and cell replication data were used to
predict net accumulation of DNA that would occur between 3 and 21 days
of age in the absence of cell death. We assumed that DNA content is
proportional to cell number, since the great majority of vascular cells
are diploid in normotensive animals.18 Then DNA content
[D(t)] at any time (t) after an initial measurement
(Di) is given by the following differential equation:
 | (1) |
 | (2) |
 | (3) |
becomes
 | (4) |
is identical to the solution for purely exponential
growth, except that a constant, k, is replaced by the mean
value for k(t). For our particular case, DNA content at 21
days of age is as follows:
 | (5) |
,
 | (6) |
t, we define
 | (7) |
 | (8) |
(t, t=1) equals
the fractional cell replication rate per day (percent cells replicating
per day÷100) that was measured experimentally. (t, t=1) is a
good approximation of k(t), provided that replication rates
are sufficiently low. The fractional replication rates in the
present study were consistently <0.05, for which the error
inherent in the above approximation is on the order of 2.5% (see
"Appendix"). Thus, measured replication rates, (t, t=1),
were averaged to estimate <k>, and Equation 5 was used to
estimate DNA content at 21 days. The methods for averaging (t,
t=1) and the statistical techniques used to make comparisons with
measured DNA content at 21 days of age are given in "Statistical
Analysis."
In Situ DNA End-Labeling of Apoptotic Cells
The method for end-labeling apoptotic cells was adapted from
Gavrieli et al.19 It is based on the preferential binding
of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase to 3'-OH ends of DNA.
Six-micrometer sections of arteries from six lambs were deparaffinized
by heating at 60°C and transferred to xylene and then hydrated in a
descending alcohol series (100%, 95%, 75%, and 0%). The sections
were incubated with 20 µg/mL proteinase K (Boehringer Mannheim) for
15 minutes at room temperature, and endogenous peroxidase was
inactivated by treating with 2% H2O2. The
tissue sections then were incubated with biotin- ylated dUTP (0.3
pmol/µL) and 0.3 U/µL terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase
(Boehringer Mannheim) in TDT buffer (mmol/L: sodium cacodylate 140,
CoCl2 1, and Tris-HCl 30 at pH 7.2) for 1 hour at 37°C.
After end-labeling, the sections were treated with 2% bovine serum
albumin for 10 minutes, followed by a 30-minute incubation at 37°C
with extra-avidin peroxidase (Sigma). Aminoethylcarbazole was used as a
chromogen to detect the biotin-labeled nuclei.
DNA Isolation and Detection of Oligonucleosomes
The method, based on the same principle as in situ end-labeling,
was modified from Rosl.20 Initially, DNA was extracted
from arterial tissues of nine newborn lambs and purified by using a
standard extraction method. Briefly, tissues were cut into very small
pieces and incubated overnight in DNA lysis buffer (20 mmol/L Tris-HCl
[pH 7.4], 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 5 mmol/L EDTA, and 100
µg/mL proteinase K) at 50°C. The DNA was extracted with
salt-saturated phenol and chloroform and precipitated with 100%
ethanol.
Five micrograms of arterial tissue DNA or 1 µg of 100-bp DNA marker (GIBCO BRL Life Technologies Inc) was incubated with 10 µCi of [32P]dCTP (ICN Biomedical Canada Ltd) and 10 U of Klenow polymerase (Pharmacia Biotech Inc) for 15 minutes at 30°C. The end-labeling reaction was terminated by addition of 10 mmol/L EDTA. Unincorporated nucleotides were removed by using a Magic DNA clean-up system (Promega Corp) following the manufacturer's instructions.
Radiolabeled DNA was electrophoresed on a 1.8% agarose gel and blotted onto Hybond nylon membrane, and the membrane was used to expose Kodak X-OMAR X-ray film for 1 to 2 hours.
Since we hypothesized that apoptosis may be a feature of postnatal
remodeling of the abdominal aorta, we also prepared autoradiographs of
gels after running DNA from abdominal aortas of six late-gestation
fetuses (134 days of gestation; full term, 145 days). Results were
compared with autoradiographs of gels prepared with abdominal aortic
DNA from six 3-day-old lambs.
In Vivo Labeling of Nonviable Cells
Three lambs, at 3 days of age, were anesthetized by
intramuscular injection of 0.08 mL/kg xylazine (20 mg/mL) plus 0.72
mL/kg ketamine (100 mg/mL) and then given intravenous injections of 5
µmol/kg propidium iodide (Calbiochem-Novabiochem Corp). After 15
minutes, the lambs were killed by intravenous injections of T-61. The
ascending aorta was catheterized as described above, and the arterial
system was flushed with 50 mL of Tyrode's and perfusion-fixed with
3% phosphate-buffered paraformaldehyde for 30 minutes. Arteries were
harvested, mounted onto glass slides with glycerol/phosphate-buffered
saline, and viewed under a laser-scanning confocal microscope (Bio-Rad
MRC 600). Cells that did not exclude the propidium iodide, as indicated
by intense nuclear fluorescence, were considered nonviable.
Statistical Analysis
ANOVA was used to test for significant differences in cell
replication rates among different arteries. No differences were
indicated, so no multiple comparison tests were required. Unpaired
t tests were used to test for significant changes in cell
replication rates between 3 and 21 days after birth. Unpaired
t tests were also used to test for significant differences
in cell death rates of 3-day-old abdominal versus thoracic aortas, as
determined from counts of cells end-labeled by using terminal
deoxynucleotidyl transferase.
A Monte Carlo simulation,21 based on Equation 5, was used
to test for significant differences between observed DNA contents at 21
days of age and DNA contents predicted on the assumption of no cell
death. First, measured means and standard deviations for DNA contents
at 3 days and for cell replication rates at 3, 12, and 21 days of age
were assumed to represent means and standard deviations of
normally distributed populations. MINITAB software
(Minitab Inc) was then used to randomly select data sets from these
populations that were equal in number to experimental sample sizes.
Mean values for D(3) were substituted directly into Equation 5. In
addition, each set of values for (3, t=1), (12, t=1), and
(21, t=1) was fitted to a quadratic, and <k> was
calculated, according to Equation 3, by integrating the quadratic. This
value for <k> also was substituted into Equation 5, and
D(21) was estimated according to the equation. The sampling process and
calculations were repeated 2000 times to construct a population of
values for D(21). The measured value for mean DNA content at 21 days of
age was inserted into this population, and the P value for
comparison of predicted versus measured DNA contents was set to
 | (9) |
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Results |
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Arterial Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation Rates and DNA Accumulations
Smooth muscle cell replication rates are presented in Fig 1
. The decreases in cell replication rates between 3 and
21 days of age were significant for all arteries studied (unpaired
t tests, P<.05).
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Replication rates in the abdominal aorta decreased steadily from
2.87±0.08% to 1.75±0.15% between 3 and 21 days after birth. On the
assumption that no cell death occurs during the 18-day period, a net
increase in DNA of 50% was predicted; however, we observed no DNA
accumulation despite the relatively high cell proliferation rate (Table 1). The difference between predicted and observed DNA
accumulations was statistically significant (P<.05). In
contrast, no significant difference between predicted and observed DNA
accumulations was observed in the distributing arteries that we
assessed: the renal, carotid, and iliac arteries.
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It was noteworthy that there were only minor differences between arteries in cell replication rates despite large differences in DNA accumulation (0% to 80%). Replication rates averaged over the experimental time period (3 to 21 days of age) were 2.28% per day for the abdominal aorta, 2.67% per day for the renal artery, 2.29% per day for the carotid artery, and 2.09% per day for the iliac artery. We also measured replication rates in the superior mesenteric artery. Cells in this vessel divided at a rate that averaged 3.64% per day over the 21-day period. These time-average replication rates could not be compared statistically because they were derived from a nonhomogeneous population due to age dependence. However, the time-averaged values for each artery were all very close to replication rates for the same vessel at the midpoint of the experimental period (12 days of age). At this age, there were no significant differences in replication rates for different arteries (one-way ANOVA, P>.05).
In Situ End-Labeling of Nonviable Cells
In all arteries examined, we detected cells positively stained by
in situ end-labeling of fragmented DNA by using terminal
deoxynucleotidyl transferase and biotinylated dUTP. These cells were
rare, presumably because of the brief duration of apoptosis, and they
occurred more often in the abdominal aorta than in the thoracic aorta
or in the iliac or renal arteries. Most frequently, isolated cells were
detected (Fig 2A), although islands of 2 to 10 stained
cells were sometimes seen (Fig 2B). We noted no consistent pattern of
distribution of labeled cells; however, their incidence was
sufficiently rare to preclude easy recognition of such a pattern.
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We quantified the difference in cell-labeling rates for the postnatal thoracic and abdominal aortas. Thus, 0.058±0.036% of abdominal aortic smooth muscle cells versus 0.0030±0.0018% of thoracic aortic cells were labeled (P<.005). It is noteworthy that even though labeling of abdominal aortic cells is 20-fold higher than thoracic aortic labeling rates, the labeling indices for this vessel are still only a small fraction (1/30th to 1/40th) of daily cell replication rates, as measured by uptake of [3H]thymidine. Low labeling probably reflects the short duration of apoptosis and the likelihood that cells contain fragmented DNA in sufficient quantities for detection of labeling for a portion of this time.
To assess arterial sites where cell death may be more common, we
end-labeled segments of the intra-abdominal umbilical artery from two
lambs at 3 days of age. This artery undergoes a rapid regression soon
after birth. Large numbers of cells in the inner media of the umbilical
artery were intensely stained when end-labeled with biotinylated dUTP
(Fig 2C).
Positive controls indicated that we were correctly detecting fragmented DNA and cell death. DNAse treatment of normal arteries to promote end-labeling resulted in a high number of positive cells (data not shown). Also, in small intestine, epithelial cells mature as they migrate from the crypt and eventually undergo apoptotic cell death at the villus tip.1 19 When sections of small intestine from postnatal lamb were end-labeled, cells at the villus tip showed intense staining, indicating the presence of DNA fragmentation in dying cells (data not shown).
Detection of DNA Fragmented Into Oligonucleosomes
When DNA extracted from the abdominal aortas of 3-day-old
lambs was end-labeled with [32P]dCTP and
electrophoresed on an agarose gel, DNA fragments in multiples of 200
bp were detected (Fig 3A). These data indicate cleavage
of DNA at internucleosomal sites. DNA extracted from the umbilical
arteries of 3-day-old lambs also demonstrated this laddering phenomenon
on an agarose gel, whereas DNA extracted from thoracic aorta or
distributing arteries showed much fainter laddering. Furthermore, much
weaker signals from oligonucleosome ladders were detected from fetal
abdominal aortas when compared with the neonatal vessels (Fig 3B).
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In Vivo Detection of Nonviable Cells
Nonviable cells were detected by intravenous infusion of the
membrane-impermeable DNA binding dye, propidium iodide. The
distribution of positive cells was highly reminiscent of the
distribution observed after end-labeling with terminal
deoxynucleotidyl transferase. Nonviable smooth muscle cells were rare,
but they were detected in all vessels examined. Most positively stained
cells were isolated (Fig 4A), but localized clusters of
labeled cells were detected occasionally (Fig 4B). Some of these cells
showed normal ellipsoidal nuclear morphology that resembled the shape
of the nuclei of viable cells that were stained after membrane
permeabilization (not shown). In other nonviable cells,
staining did not reveal normal nuclear morphology; instead, DNA was
condensed into a globular pattern (Fig 4A) suggestive of the chromatin
condensation, a characteristic of apoptosis.1 9 Nonviable
endothelial cells also were detected by this technique. Also, many
cells, both smooth muscle and endothelium, were labeled in postnatal
intra-abdominal umbilical arteries.
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Discussion |
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There has been much interest in the control of arterial tissue growth and remodeling during development, in part because of its relation to pathological processes including hypertension and atherosclerosis.22 23 Much of this interest has been directed toward growth factors that control vascular cell mitosis rates.22 Our data indicate that the growth of cell populations in arteries also depends on rates of cell death. Cell death in the neonatal abdominal aorta was implicated by DNA accumulation rates that were inconsistent with cell mitosis rates. Previously, Bendeck and Langille14 reported a similar inconsistency; however, those experiments relied on postmortem determinations of arterial cell replication rates from in vitro thymidine uptake. In the present study, cell replication rates were based on in vivo thymidine incorporation. Also, several additional lines of evidence supported the inference of cell death and implicated apoptosis, including in situ and biochemical evidence of DNA fragmentation and failure to exclude the fluorescent dye propidium iodide.
The concept of apoptosis arose from observations that many instances of cell death that serve a physiological or developmental function display a specific sequence of morphological changes that leads to cell fragmentation and phagocytosis by neighboring cells or macrophages. Apoptosis differs from necrosis, which occurs when cells are lethally injured by trauma or toxins. Necrosis is characterized by swelling of organelles and the cytoplasm, membrane rupture, and disintegration of the cell. Apoptosis produces compaction and segregation of chromatin at the periphery of the nucleus and condensation of the cytoplasm, followed by nuclear fragmentation and the budding off of intact cell fragments (apoptotic bodies) that are phagocytosed by neighboring cells or macrophages.
Recently, however, there have been reports of physiological cell death that is not apoptotic24 and of variant forms of apoptosis. Variant forms of apoptosis include, for example, those in which DNA is cleaved into large fragments (50 to 300 kb) but not into relatively short oligonucleosomes.11 Consequently, we examined postnatal arteries for evidence of cell death and to determine whether such death displayed characteristics of apoptosis.
We attempted to detect apoptosis by transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), but the results proved inconclusive. Some cells
displayed morphological features that could be interpreted as
apoptotic, but we did not detect unequivocal chromatin condensation or
apoptotic bodies. It is possible that vascular cells follow a normal
biochemical pathway to apoptosis without an obvious display of many
features of apoptotic morphology. However, we favor an alternative
explanation, ie, that the sampling limitations of TEM render detection
of apoptotic morphology improbable because of the brief duration of
this morphology and the relative rarity of apoptosis. In many apoptotic
cell populations, a large fraction of the cells die rapidly; thus, even
very short-lived morphological changes can be detected. By contrast,
death rates of the cells in the slowly remodeling arteries we studied
were generally below mitosis rates of 2% per day (DNA content
increased in most vessels). Since apoptotic morphology persists for
only 1 to 3 hours,3 13 <1 cell in 1000 would be detected
by TEM. One reason for favoring this explanation was that fluorescence
labeling of DNA in nonviable cells frequently showed condensation of
DNA into discrete packages reminiscent of apoptotic chromatin
condensation seen by TEM in other cells. These features were detectable
with the laser-scanning confocal microscope, because large volumes of
tissue could be scanned quickly with this device.
We confirmed apoptotic cell death, because gel electrophoresis of DNA from neonatal arteries yielded a ladder pattern with bands at multiples of 180 to 200 bp. This pattern is a widely accepted marker of apoptosis that has been observed in many systems.1 Apoptosis can occur in rare circumstances without producing these small molecular weight DNA fragments, apparently because the morphological features that define apoptosis coincide with DNA cleavage into larger fragments of 50 to 300 kb11 ; nonetheless, the endonuclease that generates the smaller fragments is not associated with nonapoptotic processes. Detection of high numbers of dying cells, by in situ end-labeling and by in vivo fluorescent labeling with propidium iodide, in those vessels that yielded intense DNA ladders (postnatal abdominal aorta and intra-abdominal umbilical arteries) indicates that apoptosis contributes to the pattern of cell death observed in perinatal arteries, although other modes of cell death may also occur.
The high rate of programmed cell death in the abdominal aorta provides an illustrative example of the role of this process in the remodeling of arteries that occurs in response to altered function. The abdominal aorta goes into virtual growth arrest over the perinatal period examined in the present study, and its diameter decreases substantially.15 These phenomena are related to a very dramatic decrease in blood flow, by >90%, at parturition that is associated with loss of the placenta. The placenta, which receives almost half of the combined output of both ventricles in the fetus, is supplied by umbilical arteries that arise at the termination of the aorta. It is possible that apoptosis in this vessel, and others, is influenced by hemodynamic signals that regulate other aspects of arterial growth.14 15 Low apoptosis rates in fetal abdominal aorta and the intra-abdominal umbilical artery support our inference that postnatal apoptosis is related to vessel remodeling after birth. All other postnatal arteries we examined yielded evidence of apoptosis but at a much lower frequency than in these arteries.
Although the discrepancy between cell replication rates and DNA accumulation first directed our attention toward cell death, the cell replication rates also were striking for their consistency among different arteries. These data suggest that systemic factors may control vascular cell replication rates in large arteries. The striking differences in DNA accumulation in different arteries, despite an invariant mitosis rate, indicate that cell death rates may determine differential growth of cell populations in different arteries.
We observed endothelial cell and smooth muscle cell apoptosis, both of which may contribute to remodeling of arteries. Endothelial cell apoptosis has been reported previously in vessels of the regressing corpus luteum,5 and we have some unpublished evidence that it occurs in endothelium of arteries that remodel in response to chronic reductions in blood flow. In general, endothelial cell populations respond to changes in vessel size by restoring a normal density of the cells on the vessel surface.25 Thus, cells are deleted from vessels that are decreasing in size, like those supplying the regressing corpus luteum, or that are carrying reduced blood flow for other reasons. Apoptosis may be a common means of remodeling the endothelium to restore the initial status of the monolayer after vessel diameter reduction.
The functional significance of apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells probably is more complex and also more critical in determining arterial structure. Localized cell death will modulate regional smooth muscle populations, and since these cells make virtually all matrix components in the media, all constituents of the media may be affected. Thus, coordinated controls of mitosis and apoptosis are probably critical in reshaping the arterial system during development. In postnatal arteries, this reshaping involves changes in the arterial lengths, radii, and wall thicknesses. Earlier remodeling includes complete loss of many vessels and dramatic reorganization of others, with relative positions of branch sites changing and even bypassing their neighbors. In mammals, the latter events occur, for example, as the aortic origin of the primitive left subclavian artery bypasses the junction of the aorta and ductus arteriosus.26 Other examples in vertebrate development are commonplace (eg, see Willemse and Markus-Silvis27 ). The importance of apoptosis in such remodeling is unknown.
Evidence from other systems confirms a morphogenetic role for apoptosis. For example, cell death defines digit formation in embryonic limb buds,12 neuronal and oligodendricyte cell death directs the formation of appropriate cell-cell connections within the central nervous system,3 and epithelial cell apoptosis is important in involution of the prostate after castration.6 The importance of apoptosis is observed across many species. Apoptosis plays an important part in the development of the body plan of Caenorhabditis elegans, since approximately one seventh of all cells that form during development of this nematode die before maturation.28 29 Furthermore, immunolocalization in fetuses of an important inhibitory regulator of apoptosis, bcl-2, suggests an important role in many aspects of morphogenesis.30
The importance of apoptosis in the mature vasculature is unknown; however, there has been much recent interest in the reexpression of developmental growth controls in adult vascular pathologies. There is some evidence that cell death may influence these disorders. Intimal thickening that follows arterial endothelial trauma ultimately ceases, for unknown reasons, even though luminal smooth muscle cells continue to divide at a high rate.31 This observation implies that cell death is compensating for ongoing proliferation and preventing ultimate occlusion of the artery. Other vascular trauma can induce transient overproliferation during repair that ultimately resolves.32 33 The deletion of the excess cells is poorly understood, but it may be important in the progression of sequelae to vascular injury.
Apoptosis in both normal and pathological vessel remodeling can be investigated by mapping the phenomena as arteries restructure; however, this is not straightforward. The brief duration of detectable apoptosis and a relatively low daily apoptosis rate in neonatal arteries preclude statistical mapping using most available methods of detection. TEM is too time consuming and provides too small a sampling volume for these studies, and it is reliant on three-dimensional reconstructions from tissue sections. End-labeling fragmented DNA in situ is slightly more efficient, but it is also time consuming and reliant on three-dimensional reconstruction. Uptake of fluorescent labels may be the most promising approach, since relatively large volumes of tissue in whole-mount preparations can be examined rapidly by fluorescence laser scanning confocal microscopy.
Although our data suggest that local regulators of cell death may be very important in arterial development, the nature of these regulators in vascular tissues is unknown. Transforming growth factor-ß enhances34 and platelet-derived growth factor and insulin-like growth factor inhibit cell death in some tissues3 34 ; however, their effects on apoptosis in arteries are unknown. Likewise, a host of regulators of apoptosis have been implicated in other systems, but their effect in the vasculature has not been studied. Members of the bcl-2 family are particularly important,35 but p5336 37 and steroid hormones38 also deserve examination in vascular tissue apoptosis. Recently, interleukin-converting enzyme, which displays significant sequence identity to ced-3, a cell death gene in C elegans, has been implicated in control of cell death in mammalian cells.39 40 Finally, very recent evidence indicates that cultured vascular smooth muscle cells can be driven into apoptosis by growth inhibition if downregulation of c-myc is prevented.41
In summary, the present study demonstrates that apoptosis occurs in neonatal arteries and that cell death rates approach mitosis rates in some arteries. Vessel-specific differences in DNA (cell) accumulation probably are attributable largely to differences in cell death rates, since mitosis rates were consistent from vessel to vessel. Our findings indicate that programmed cell death is a potentially important mechanism for developmental remodeling of blood vessels.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by the Medical Research Council of Canada (grant PG-11115). Dr Langille is a Career Investigator of the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Ontario and A. Cho is a trainee of the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. Mr Peter Lewycky, biostatistician at the Toronto Hospital Research Institute, provided statistical consultation and analysis on a fee-for-service basis.
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Appendix 1 |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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We demonstrate that the replication rates we measured over a 24-hour period [
(t, t=1)] are sufficiently low to provide a
reliable estimate of k(t) in Equation 1. Also, we provide a
brief description of how to predict DNA accumulations, assuming no cell
death, when replication rates are not low. Substituting Equation 2 into
Equation 7 yields the following:
 | (10) |
 | (11) |
 | (12) |
 |
 | (13) |
 |
(t, t=1), the fraction of cells replicating
in a given day, is consistently <0.05. Since all terms on the right
hand side (RHS) of Equation 13 are positive, we also have 
k(t)dt<0.05. It follows that the second-order term is
<0.00125, ie, <2.5% of the first-order term. Consequently, this term
and higher order terms are neglected and
 | (14) |
is the mean of k(t) over 1
day. Thus, (t, t=1) is a good measure of the mean value of
k(t) for the day if and only if the replication rate is low.
If (t, t=1) is not low, then (t, t=1) overestimates
k because of the higher order terms in Equation 13.
In the event that replication rates are too high to neglect higher
order terms, it is still feasible to predict DNA accumulation (or cell
population growth), assuming no cell death, based on time-varying cell
replication rates. By definition,
 | (15) |
into Equation 15 yields
 | (16) |
to solve
for D(t). We will demonstrate this for the case of quadratic fits.
Assume for the moment that coefficients exist; ie,
 | (17) |
into Equation 16
yields
 | (18) |
 | (19) |
(t, t=1) are converted to
the logarithmic function on the left hand side (LHS) of Equation 19 and
fitted to the quadratic
 | (20) |
and 20, we
have
 | (21) |
, and hence the coefficients 
, ß,
, a, b, and c, always exist, since (t, t=1) is always
positive. An explicit expression for Equation 17, in terms of the
experimentally derived values , ß, and , can now be substituted
into Equation 2 to calculate D(t). Received May 6, 1994; accepted October 6, 1994.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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Koseki C, Herzlinger D, Al-Awqati Q. Apoptosis in metanephric
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Raff MC, Barres BA, Burne JF, Coles HS, Ishizaki Y, Jacobson
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L. C. Y. Wong and B. L. Langille Developmental Remodeling of the Internal Elastic Lamina of Rabbit Arteries : Effect of Blood Flow Circ. Res., May 1, 1996; 78(5): 799 - 805. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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M.R. Bennett, D.F. Gibson, S.M. Schwartz, and J.F. Tait Binding and Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Is Mediated in Part by Exposure of Phosphatidylserine Circ. Res., December 1, 1995; 77(6): 1136 - 1142. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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M. R. Bennett, G. I. Evan, and S. M. Schwartz Apoptosis of Rat Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Is Regulated by p53-Dependent and -Independent Pathways Circ. Res., August 1, 1995; 77(2): 266 - 273. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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Z. S. Jackson, A. I. Gotlieb, and B. L. Langille Wall Tissue Remodeling Regulates Longitudinal Tension in Arteries Circ. Res., May 3, 2002; 90(8): 918 - 925. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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