Published online before print December 18, 2008, doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.108.187062
© 2009 American Heart Association, Inc.
Integrative Physiology |
Formation of the Sinus Node Head and Differentiation of Sinus Node Myocardium Are Independently Regulated by Tbx18 and Tbx3
From the Center for Heart Failure Research (C.W., M.T.M.M., C.d.G.-d.V., A.F.M.M., V.M.C.), Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; and Institute for Molecular Biology (T.G., R.A., K.S.-G., A.K.) and Department of Cardiology and Angiology (A.G.), Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Germany.
Correspondence to Vincent M. Christoffels, Center for Heart Failure Research, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 15, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail v.m.christoffels{at}amc.uva.nl
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Abstract |
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The sinus node (or sinoatrial node [SAN]), the pacemaker of the heart, is a functionally and structurally heterogeneous tissue, which consists of a large "head" within the right caval vein myocardium and a "tail" along the terminal crest. Here, we investigated its cellular origin and mechanism of formation. Using genetic lineage analysis and explant assays, we identified T-box transcription factor Tbx18-expressing mesenchymal progenitors in the inflow tract region that differentiate into pacemaker myocardium to form the SAN. We found that the head and tail represent separate regulatory domains expressing distinctive gene programs. Tbx18 is required to establish the large head structure, as seen by the existence of a very small but still functional tail piece in Tbx18-deficient fetuses. In contrast, Tbx3-deficient embryos formed a morphologically normal SAN, which, however, aberrantly expressed Cx40 and other atrial genes, demonstrating that Tbx3 controls differentiation of SAN head and tail cardiomyocytes but also demonstrating that Tbx3 is not required for the formation of the SAN structure. Our data establish a functional order for Tbx18 and Tbx3 in SAN formation, in which Tbx18 controls the formation of the SAN head from mesenchymal precursors, on which Tbx3 subsequently imposes the pacemaker gene program.
Key Words: heart development • progenitors • Hcn4 • Cx43 • transgenic mice
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The sinoatrial node (SAN) or sinus node is the most upstream component of the cardiac conduction system. As the primary pacemaker, it serves to initiate and control the rate of electric impulses for the ordered stimulation and contraction of the cardiac chambers. The critical importance of the SAN is reflected in dysfunctions that arise on aging and disease, including sick sinus syndrome, leading to implantation in about one-half of all pacemaker recipients in the United States.1
The SAN consists of a small group of primitive variably sized myocytes with little contractile filaments and intermingled fibroblasts at the junction of the right venous entrance and the atrium.2 They form an elongated "comma-shaped" structure that is subdivided into a large "head" in the right superior caval vein bordering the atrium, and a "tail" along the terminal crest.3,4 The leading pacemaker usually originates from a small number of cells within the SAN, but its location shifts under altered physiological conditions, a phenomenon that likely contributes to both controllability and stability of pacemaker activity.2,5,6 For example, β-adrenergic stimulation in rat causes dominant pacemaker activity to shift cranially into the SAN head region,7 supporting the notion that functional specialization correlates with structural regionalization in the SAN.
The mechanisms underlying the functional regionalization, as well as the pathological mechanisms underlying SAN dysfunction, are only insufficiently understood. Histological studies initially indicated that the mouse SAN forms at approximately embryonic day (E)10 to E11 from myocardium of the sinus horns.8,9 Genetic labeling analyses confirmed the origin of the SAN from this cell population and excluded the embryonic atrial myocardium as a cellular source for this tissue.10 Yet, it remains unclear whether the SAN is formed by growth of a small prespecified population of sinus myocardium or by differentiation of mesenchymal cells into SAN cells. Analyses of the function of the Tbx3 and Shox2 genes have provided insight into the molecular program regulating formation and maintenance of the SAN.10–12 Tbx3 is expressed in the conduction system including the SAN and is required to repress atrial differentiation of the SAN. Moreover, Tbx3 was found to be sufficient for the induction of the pacemaker gene program and function in atrial myocardium.10
Here, we explore the cellular origin and molecular mechanisms underlying SAN formation. We provide information on the morphogenesis and regionalization of this structure during normal development. We identified a progenitor source population of the SAN and show that the 2 T-box genes Tbx3 and Tbx18 control distinct subprograms of SAN development.
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Materials and Methods |
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Mice
For the Tbx18tm2Akis (Tbx18GFP) transgenic mouse line, the IRES.lacZ knock-in construct13 was modified to harbor an enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) cassette in the start codon. The generation and evaluation of the Tbx18tm3Akis (Tbx18Cre) "lineage-tracer" transgenic line, which harbors a Cre gene at the translation start site and from which the Pgk-neo cassette was removed, will be described elsewhere. Tbx3tm1Vmc (Tbx3Cre),10 R26RlacZ,14 Tg(Nppa-cre)3Vmc (Nppa::cre3),15 and Tg(Dll1-Tbx18)20Akis (msd::Tbx18)13 transgenic mouse lines have been described previously. Animal experiments were performed in agreement with national and institutional guidelines. An expanded Materials and Methods section is available in the online data supplement at http://circres.ahajournals.org.
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Results |
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The SAN Head Forms From Tbx18+ Mesenchymal Precursors
We first analyzed the morphology, localization, and molecular subdivision of the SAN at different developmental time points in the mouse embryo. The myocardial expression pattern of Tbx3 was used in all instances to accurately identify the developing and mature SAN11,16 (Figure 1A through 1D) in sections through the posterior pole of the heart. Three-dimensional reconstruction analysis revealed that at E14.5, the Tbx3-positive (Tbx3+) SAN consists of a large domain wrapped around the superior caval vein wall like a gully and touched the right atrium and a smaller domain that extended into the atrium along the right (and left) venous valve. This structure much resembled the comma-shaped SAN described for adult mammals,3,4 with a large head (around the superior caval vein) and a smaller tail (along the venous valve, incorporated into the future terminal crest). Coexpression analysis of a series of key marker genes on adjacent sagittal sections (Figure 1D) revealed that at E14.5, the Tbx3+ SAN consisted of 2 molecular subdomains. The head expressed Tbx18 and Hcn4, a marker for the developing SAN and sinus horns,11,17,18 but was devoid of Nkx2-5 expression. In contrast, the tail expressed Hcn4 highly and Nkx2-5 weakly and lacked expression of Tbx18. Outside the Tbx3+ SAN, the common cardinal vein (future right superior caval vein) featured a Tbx18+ wall, whereas the atrium and atrial side of the venous valve expressed atrial markers connexin 40 (Cx40) and Nppa in a pattern strictly complementary to Tbx3. Thus, based on the expression pattern of transcription factor genes Tbx3, Tbx18, and Nkx2-5, the SAN comprises 2 distinctive regulatory domains, referred to as "head" (Tbx18+ Tbx3+ Nkx2-5–) and "tail" (Tbx18– Tbx3+ Nkx2-5+).
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At E9 to E9.5, before the sinus horn myocardium had formed,19 the most caudoventrally located myocardium expressed Hcn4 and Tbx3 (Figure 1E). The nonmyocardial mesenchyme and proepicardium that was immediately adjacent expressed Tbx18 (Figure 1E).19,20 Hence, the Tbx3+ Hcn4+ myocardium (cTnI+) expanded into the Tbx18+ mesenchymal domain to form the SAN head after E9.5 (Figure 1F). This suggests that either the Tbx3+ Hcn4+ myocardium expanded and initiated Tbx18 expression or that the Tbx18+ mesenchyme differentiated into the SAN myocardium. We next crossed a Tbx18Cre line, in which the expression of the Cre recombinase gene mimics that of the Tbx18 gene, with R26RlacZ mice.10 This system irreversibly labels Tbx18-expressing cells and their daughters by lacZ expression (β-galactosidase activity) and allows one to follow the fate of the Tbx18+ precursors during development. Staining serial sections of an E18.5 fetus for lacZ and Tbx3 activity revealed that indeed the Tbx18+ cells form the SAN head. In addition, the SAN tail, which does not express Tbx18, appeared to be derived from progenitors that once expressed Tbx18. In contrast, the atria remained free of lacZ expression, indicating that Tbx18+ progenitors do not give rise to atrial myocytes (Figure 2A).
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To further explore the ability of Tbx18+ progenitors to form SAN, tissue fragments from the GFP-positive mesenchyme at the inflow tract region of Tbx18GFP/+ E9.5 embryos (ie, before the formation of Tbx18+ SAN) were isolated largely free of myocardium (see Figure 2B and 2D) and cultured. At day 0 of culture, 23% of the isolated explants (n=31) possessed few MF20+ cells, but 77% were completely free of contaminating MF20+ cardiomyocytes. After 4 days, however, all explants strongly expressed Hcn4 (n=16) and 94% expressed MF20 (n=31) (Figure 2E), indicating de novo differentiation of SAN myocardium from Tbx18+ mesenchyme. In addition, none of the Tbx18+ explants was beating at day 0, whereas all control ventricular explants were. However, at day 4 of culture, 51% of Tbx18+ explants showed synchronous contraction (n=37). Beating frequencies were higher in these explants than in control ventricular explants (n=25; Figure 2C). Because the caudal (inflow) heart regions of the early embryonic heart are known to display higher beating rates compared to ventricular myocardium,21 we conclude that myocardial pacemaker cells were formed de novo from Tbx18+ mesenchymal precursors in culture.
Formation of the SAN Head Requires Tbx18
Expression of Tbx18 in SAN precursor cells suggested a requirement for this transcription factor gene in the formation of the SAN. We therefore analyzed Tbx18GFP/GFP mutant embryos for defects in the SAN at different developmental stages (E10.5 to E17.5) using in situ hybridization analysis for marker genes on serial sections through the region (Figure 3 and the online data supplement, Figure I). GFP from the Tbx18GFP allele was used to monitor the Tbx18 expression domain in Tbx18-deficient embryos because it faithfully mimicked endogenous Tbx18 expression in the common cardinal vein/caval vein mesenchyme and sinus horns of Tbx18GFP/+ embryos. At E10.5 and E12.5, the GFP-negative SAN tail in the right venous valve (Tbx3+ Hcn4+) had formed, whereas the GFP-positive cTnI+ Tbx3+ Hcn4+ SAN head domain was absent in Tbx18GFP/GFP embryos (Figure 3B and supplemental Figure VI, A). Formation of atria and the atrial side of the venous valve was unaffected. Expression of atrial myocardial genes Cx40, Cx43, and Nppa was not detected in the SAN tail region in Tbx18-deficient embryos. At E14.5 and E17.5, the right superior caval vein of Tbx18-deficient embryos acquired myocardial cells (cTnI+), albeit in a delayed fashion compared to control fetuses (Figure 3B). Formation of SAN-like tissue expressing GFP, Tbx3, and Hcn4 and lacking Cx40, Cx43, and Nppa occurred but was similarly delayed (Figure 3B and 3C and not shown). Nkx2-5 was expressed in the SAN-like tissue similar to the wild-type SAN tail at these stages (supplemental Figure VI, B). Expression of Shox2,12 Lbh,22 and Odd123 in the SAN myocardium was unchanged in Tbx18-deficient embryos (supplemental Figure I, E, and data not shown). In summary, Tbx18 is required for formation of the head region of the SAN.
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To further assess the defects in the formation of the SAN head in Tbx18-deficient embryos, we performed a 3D reconstruction of the SAN and the lumen of the right superior caval vein from serial section in situ hybridization analysis for Tbx3 (Figure 4A). The wild-type SAN head was found to be 
0.002 mm3 at E12.5 and rapidly increased to 0.009 mm3 at E14.5 (3600 cells; cell density, 0.0004 cells/µm3; supplemental Figure II, D), but thereafter the volume did not increase further (Figure 4B). In mutants of E12.5, the Tbx3+ SAN region was restricted to the venous valve part of the SAN (tail), and the head region of the SAN head was completely missing (Figure 4A and supplemental Figure V). Two days later (E14.5), after the delayed formation of myocardium of the right superior caval vein, a SAN head-like structure was formed in Tbx18GFP/GFP embryos. However, it was significantly shortened along the longitudinal axis of the right superior caval vein (supplemental Figure II, A). Quantification of the SAN volume at E12.5, E14.5, and E17.5 confirmed that the SAN, unlike in the wild-type situation, failed to enlarge after E12.5 in Tbx18-deficient embryos (Figure 4B). The proliferation rate within the Tbx18+/GFP+ SAN area was not significantly altered between the mutant and the control situation (8% to 10% 5-bromodeoxyuridine–positive; E14.5: P=0.4; E17.5: P=0.8; supplemental Figure II, B and C). Similarly, apoptosis was unaffected in Tbx18 mutant embryos (data not shown). In addition, cell densities were not significantly different between the wild-type and Tbx18-deficient SAN, ruling out the notion that the reduction of the SAN volume was attributable to reduction of cell size (supplemental Figure II, D). Hence, we suggest that the smaller volume of the SAN head in Tbx18 mutant embryos results from the failure to expand the mesenchymal precursor population and/or to differentiate cardiomyocytes of the SAN head from precursor cells along the longitudinal axis of the right caval vein.
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Tbx18 Is Required to Maintain a Sharp SAN–Atrium Boundary
The boundary between the SAN and atrial myocardium is of crucial importance, because it allows the SAN to drive the large atrium without being suppressed by its hyperpolarizing influence.2,4,24 In situ hybridization analysis of expression of Hcn4 and of Cx40 revealed a clear delineation of the 2 expression domains in the SAN region of wild-type embryos. In Tbx18-deficient embryos, in contrast, the boundary between SAN and atrial myocardium appeared less distinct. This may be caused by misspecification of atrial or SAN cardiomyocytes or by morphogenetic defects (Figure 5A). To investigate whether atrial cardiomyocytes redifferentiate to the SAN phenotype in the absence of Tbx18, we followed the fate of atrial myocardium using the Cre/loxP system and the Nppa::cre3 driver.10 We failed to detect β-galactosidase–positive cells in the Hcn4+ SAN of both mutant (Tbx18GFP/GFP; Nppa::cre3; R26RlacZ) and control (Tbx18GFP/+; Nppa::cre3; R26RlacZ) fetuses, indicating that atrial cardiomyocytes do not redifferentiate to the SAN phenotype in the absence of Tbx18 (Figure 5). In addition, Hcn4 and Cx40 were never coexpressed as shown by double immunofluorescence analysis, providing evidence that SAN cardiomyocytes do not acquire an atrial cardiomyocyte phenotype either (Figure 5C). Taken together, disturbance of boundary formation between SAN and atrium is likely to result from morphogenetic defects rather than misspecification of atrial or SAN cells.
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Tbx3 Regulates Cytodifferentiation of the SAN Myocardium but Not SAN Formation
We previously found that the SAN volume in Tbx3-deficient embryos is significantly smaller than of the wild-type control.10 To identify a possible cause, we analyzed the SAN morphology, as well as characteristics of SAN myocytes, in Tbx3Cre/Cre embryos in a similar manner to Tbx18 mutant embryos (supplemental Figure III). Three-dimensional reconstructions revealed that the morphology and length of the Tbx3-deficient SAN was not significantly different from the wild-type control (Figure 6A and supplemental Figure III, A). In addition, proliferation and apoptosis in the SAN at E12.5 were not affected, as revealed by the 5-bromodeoxyuridine incorporation assay and cleaved caspase-3 detection, respectively (supplemental Figure III, B and C, and data not shown). Finally, the measurement of the cell density did not reveal any significant differences (supplemental Figure III, D) between wild-type and Tbx3 mutant SAN. Tbx3-deficient embryos die between E11.5 and E15.5, depending on genetic background, and a fraction of mutants show developmental and growth retardation.10,25,26 This can be expected to reduce SAN size nonspecifically. We measured atrial wall thickness as a Tbx3-independent parameter for growth retardation and found that mutant embryos with a smaller SAN volume have thinner atrial walls (Figure 6B). These findings suggest that the reduced SAN volume in several Tbx3 mutants is caused by general growth retardation and is not caused by the absence of Tbx3 from the SAN. Molecular analysis showed ectopic expression of Cx43 and other atrial markers in the SAN of Tbx3 mutants (Figure 6C),10 whereas Tbx18 and Shox2 were normally expressed (data not shown). Thus, Tbx3 does not regulate basic cellular programs affecting growth and morphology of the SAN but ensures correct gene regulation in SAN cells.
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Tbx18 and Tbx3 Function Independently and Successively in SAN Development
Our analyses indicated that Tbx18 and Tbx3 control distinct programs in SAN formation. Tbx18GFP/+;Tbx3Cre/+ double heterozygous fetuses had apparently normal SANs, indicating that Tbx18 and Tbx3 do not interact at the genetic level (data not shown). Reminiscent to the situation in Tbx18 single mutants, Tbx18/Tbx3 double mutant embryos lacked the SAN head, whereas the tail region was present (Figure 7 and supplemental Figure IV). The tail region showed ectopic expression of Cx40, in agreement with the previously described SAN-specific phenotype of Tbx3-deficient embryos.10 Together, our analyses of Tbx3 and Tbx18 single and compound mutant embryos indicate that both genes act heterochronically and independently. First, Tbx18 controls the formation of the head region of the developing SAN. Subsequently, Tbx3 regulates the differentiation of myocytes in the SAN (Figure 8).
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Discussion |
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In the present study, we have investigated the developmental origin of the SAN myocardium, its morphogenesis, its partition in distinctive regulatory domains, and the genetic requirement of Tbx18 and Tbx3 in its formation. We show that the SAN comprises at least 2 distinct domains, a large Tbx18+ head in the right superior caval vein wall, which represents
75% of the SAN volume, and a small Tbx18– tail along the venous valve (terminal crest in the mature heart). We found that the SAN originates from Tbx18+ mesenchymal precursor cells that, from E9.5 onward, differentiate into SAN myocardium. Formation of the head depends on Tbx18, whereas gene regulation in cardiomyocytes of both head and tail regions depends on Tbx3. Thus, this study establishes a 2-step process of SAN formation, in which Tbx18 controls the formation of the SAN head, on which Tbx3 subsequently exerts the pacemaker gene program.
Molecular and Functional Regionalization of the SAN Into an Anterior Head and Posterior Tail Region
Based on functional, morphological, and gene expression studies, the SAN has been defined as an elongated structure with a large head, and a right-sided extension, or tail, along the terminal crest.4,7 In rodents, the head is wrapped around the superior caval vein, including the intraatrial groove region at the left side.4,7,8 The 3D reconstructions of the Tbx3 expression pattern are in full agreement with this SAN morphology (Figure 1 and elsewhere11,16), and the critical role of Tbx3 in the regulation of the SAN gene program and function10 further underscores the notion that the Tbx3 pattern accurately reflects the entire SAN domain. Shortly after E9, first the tail domain is established, and, subsequently, the SAN head domain expands rapidly along the superior caval vein to reach its definitive shape at E14.5. Our expression analysis revealed the existence of 2 domains within the SAN with distinct genetic programs: a Tbx18+ Tbx3+ domain corresponding to the head, and a Tbx18– Tbx3+ domain corresponding to the tail. Formation of the head to a much larger extent than the tail depends on Tbx18, establishing that the SAN contains 2 distinct domains that differentially depend on the presence of this transcription factor. These data provide the first insights into the compartmentalization of the SAN, which may bear relevance to the establishment of regionalized physiological requirements within this tissue. A small region within the SAN center usually functions as dominant pacemaker during rest, although multicentric impulses may origin from both head and tail.5,7 However, during vagal stimulation (long cycle length) or isoproterenol administration (short cycle length), the origin of the impulse was seen to shift in a species dependent manner toward the tail region along the terminal crest or toward the head.2,5–7 These studies have clearly established functional domains within the SAN, with emphasis on the head and tail regions, which underlie the regulated initiation of the impulse under different physiological (pharmacological) conditions.2,6
In 3 rare postnatal Tbx18 mutant mice, obtained by rescuing the somitic requirement of Tbx18 (Tbx18GFP/GFP, msd::Tbx1813), the SAN was severely reduced in size, as expected (data not shown). Under anesthesia, these animals showed rates of contraction and ECG parameters, including P-waves, not significantly different from littermate controls (our unpublished observations, 2008). These data suggest that under sedated conditions, a strongly reduced SAN is sufficient to function as dominant pacemaker. This observation underscores the notion that an extensive region of tissue has to be ablated to stop sinus rhythm, ie, that only a small number of cells within the SAN region is sufficient for SAN function, and that the location of this activity within the SAN is flexible.5,7,27,28
Origin of the SAN Cells and Regulation of the SAN Gene Program
There are several principle modes of SAN formation during cardiogenesis. The SAN may form (1) by proliferative growth of a small prespecified population of sinus myocardium, (2) by expansion and differentiation of mesenchymal cells directly into SAN cells, or (3) by recruiting existing adjacent myocardial cells to a small population of initially specified SAN cells. Previous analysis excluded this last mode for the development of the SAN.10 Our 3D expression analysis showed that the Tbx3+ Hcn4+ myocardium expands into the Tbx18+ mesenchymal domain along the superior caval vein to form the SAN head, suggesting that either the Tbx3+ Hcn4+ myocardium expands by proliferation and initiates Tbx18 expression or that the Tbx18+ mesenchyme is a precursor cell type that can differentiate into the SAN lineage. The Tbx18 lineage tracing experiment strongly favors the latter possibility, because cells labeled by Tbx18Cre expression and their daughters were found in the entire SAN. Moreover, they showed that the Tbx18-expressing precursors do not provide contributions to the atrial myocytes, indicating an early lineage segregation between SAN/sinus horn and atrial myocardium. Although the SAN tail is derived from the Tbx18-expressing precursors, Tbx18 expression is only maintained in the head, where it may have later functions in regulating head morphogenesis or gene regulation that were not addressed in this study.
Culturing of small Tbx18+ mesenchymal tissue pieces representing the putative SAN precursors revealed their propensity to differentiate into myocardium. This myocardium initiated the expression of pacemaker tissue marker Hcn4, encoding a channel important for pacemaker function.17,29 In addition, after 4 days, these differentiated explants showed significantly higher contraction rates compared to ventricular explants, consistent with an identity of caudal myocardium,21 where the dominant pacemaker resides throughout development.30 Furthermore, Tbx18-deficient embryos failed to establish a SAN head. Because proliferation, cell density, and apoptosis were not different between mutants and controls, the most likely explanation is that Tbx18 deficiency leads to a failure to form the SAN de novo from noncardiac precursors. Taken together, we conclude that myocardium forming the future SAN head is formed de novo by expansion and subsequent differentiation of Tbx18+ superior caval vein mesenchyme precursors cells to SAN myocardium. The SAN and its precursors express Islet1,11,31 a marker for the second heart field of cardiac precursors, and probably represent a subpopulation of these progenitors, which also give rise to the atrial components. However, the Tbx18+ mesenchymal population that gives rise to the sinus horns19 does not express Islet1 or Nkx2-5 and is found ventral–lateral–caudal from the tubular heart, and not dorsal, like the second heart field (our unpublished observations, 2008). These data suggest that the Tbx18+, Islet1+, Nkx2-5– SAN precursors are represented by the overlap between the Tbx18+ and Islet1+ progenitor populations found lateral from the inflow tract of the heart tube.
Investigation of Tbx3-deficient hearts did not reveal morphological changes in the SAN. Therefore, despite the important role of Tbx3 in the terminal differentiation of SAN cardiomyocytes,10 SAN morphogenesis seems to be independent of Tbx3. Furthermore, Tbx18-Tbx3 compound mutants showed an additive phenotype, whereas compound heterozygous (Tbx18+/GFP;Tbx3+/Cre) fetuses had a normal SAN. This suggests that Tbx18 acts in the mobilization or differentiation of the SAN precursor cells. Once this myocardium has been established, Shox2, important for the regulation of Nkx2.5 and Cx43,12 and Tbx3 are activated. Tbx3 subsequently ensures proper gene regulation within the SAN domain (Figure 8).
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Acknowledgments |
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We thank Alexandre Soufan, Martijn Bakker, and Jan Ruijter for their contributions.
Sources of Funding
This work was supported by Netherlands Heart Foundation grants 96.002 (to V.M.C. and A.F.M.M.); and 2005B076 (to V.M.C.); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (Vidi grant 864.05.006 to V.M.C.); the European Community’s Sixth Framework Programme contract ("HeartRepair" LSHM-CT-2005-018630 to V.M.C., A.F.M.M., and A.K.); and the German Research Foundation for the Cluster of Excellence REBIRTH (from Regenerative Biology of Reconstructive Therapy) (A.K.).
Disclosures
None.
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Footnotes |
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*These authors contributed equally to this work.
Original received September 8, 2008; revision received November 25, 2008; accepted December 4, 2008.
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